This chapter traces how the modern idea of the nation-state took shape in nineteenth-century Europe. The French Revolution of 1789 first transferred sovereignty from the monarch to a body of citizens, spreading ideas of a common identity, a national flag, a single language and shared laws. Napoleon then carried administrative reforms — the Civil Code, abolition of feudal privileges and a uniform system of weights and measures — across the lands he conquered, even as he curtailed political freedom. After his defeat, the conservative order restored at the Congress of Vienna (1815) tried to undo these changes, but liberal and nationalist movements kept growing, often led by the educated middle classes. Romantic artists, poets and the emerging print culture helped forge a sense of belonging. The revolutions of 1848 linked demands for constitutions with national unification. Step by step Italy (under Cavour, Garibaldi and Mazzini) and Germany (under Bismarck) were unified, and Britain forged a nation-state through the Act of Union. By the century’s end, nationalism had hardened into aggressive imperial rivalries, especially in the Balkans, setting the stage for wider conflict.
The French Revolution and the idea of the nationNapoleon and the Civil CodeLiberalism and the conservative orderUnification of Italy and GermanyNationalism and imperialism in the Balkans
Key terms
Nation-state
A state whose people share a common identity, history and political belonging.
Liberalism
A 19th-century ideology stressing individual freedom, equality before law and government by consent.
Conservatism
A belief in preserving traditional institutions like monarchy, church and family.
Plebiscite
A direct vote by the people of a region to accept or reject a proposal.
Absolutist
A government with centralised, unrestrained and undemocratic monarchical power.
Allegory
A figure or image that stands for an abstract idea, such as Marianne for France.
Conservatism order
The system restored at the Congress of Vienna, 1815, to undo revolutionary change.
Ethnic nationalism
National identity based on a shared language, culture and descent.
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The 1804 Civil Code that ensured equality before law and abolished feudal privileges is associated with:
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