What traumatic event does Zitkala-Sa describe at the school?

The forcible cutting of her long hair

Why was the cutting of her hair so humiliating to Zitkala-Sa?

Among her people, shingled hair was worn by cowards and mourners

What is the difference between law and justice?

The essence of law is its force — it is backed by the power of the state to compel obedience — while the essence of justice is fairness.

How has the Supreme Court expanded the Right to Life under Article 21?

By interpreting 'life' to mean more than mere existence, including livelihood, health, shelter, education and dignity, and relief to prisoners and bonded labourers.

What did the 73rd Constitutional Amendment achieve?

It gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions, established a three-tier system, made five-yearly elections compulsory, and reserved seats for SCs, STs and women.

Describe the three-tier structure of Panchayati Raj.

It is pyramidal: the Gram Sabha of all village citizens at the base, with elected panchayat bodies at the village, intermediate and district levels.

What reservation for women did the 73rd and 74th Amendments provide?

One-third of all seats in elected local bodies, both rural and urban, were reserved for women, bringing hundreds of thousands of women into political processes.

Why was Ambedkar cautious about local self-government?

Because local elites and upper castes were so entrenched that local self-government could mean continued exploitation of the downtrodden by dominant groups.

What powers and responsibilities were delegated to panchayats?

To prepare economic development plans, promote social justice, levy and collect taxes, and take up welfare and development works like roads, schools, wells and family planning.

How is a political party defined?

As an organisation oriented towards achieving legitimate control of government through an electoral process in order to pursue a specific programme.

What is the role of pressure and interest groups in a democracy?

They organise to pursue specific interests and lobby legislators and government to influence policy, even though they do not directly seek to win elections.

Why do critics say the concept of pressure groups underestimates power?

Because not all groups have equal access; dominant classes, castes and genders wield disproportionate influence and may effectively control the state.

The Constitution and Social Change

Class 12 Sociology · Social Change and Development in India · Chapter 3

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The Indian Constitution is the basic norm from which all laws and authorities derive, and it has the capacity to promote social justice because it rests on norms of fairness. There is a difference between law (whose essence is force backed by the state) and justice (whose essence is fairness), and the Supreme Court, as the ultimate interpreter, has expanded Fundamental Rights — reading the Right to Life (Article 21) to include livelihood, health, shelter, education and dignity, and the Right to Information into the freedom of speech. The chapter studies Panchayati Raj, the system of grassroots democracy. Though local self-government was dear to Gandhi, Ambedkar warned that local elites could dominate it; only the 73rd Constitutional Amendment of 1992 gave Panchayati Raj Institutions constitutional status, a three-tier structure (Gram Sabha at the base), compulsory five-yearly elections, reservation for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and one-third for women, and control over local resources. The amendments brought hundreds of thousands of women into political processes. Special provisions and traditional institutions exist in tribal areas like Meghalaya. The chapter also examines political parties (organisations seeking governmental power through elections), interest groups and pressure groups (which lobby to influence policy), noting that not all groups have equal access to power, since dominant classes and castes wield disproportionate influence.

Key terms

Constitution

The basic norm of a nation from which all laws and authorities derive their validity.

Panchayati Raj

A three-tier system of grassroots democratic self-government in rural India.

73rd Amendment

The 1992 amendment giving constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions.

Gram Sabha

The general body of all village citizens that elects the local government.

Political party

An organisation seeking to control government through the electoral process.

Pressure group

An organised group that lobbies to influence government policy without seeking office.

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The essence of law is said to be its:

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The Constitution and Social Change

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