What traumatic event does Zitkala-Sa describe at the school?

The forcible cutting of her long hair

Why was the cutting of her hair so humiliating to Zitkala-Sa?

Among her people, shingled hair was worn by cowards and mourners

Which social evils did the 19th-century reform movements target?

Practices such as sati, child marriage, the ban on widow remarriage, purdah, polygamy and caste discrimination.

What made the 19th-century reform movements distinctively modern?

They creatively combined modern western liberal ideas with a fresh reinterpretation of traditional Indian texts, using new media, organisations and ideas.

According to Satish Saberwal, what three aspects formed the modern framework of change?

New modes of communication, new forms of organisation, and the new nature of ideas.

Define sanskritisation.

A process by which a lower caste, tribe or group adopts the customs, rituals, beliefs and lifestyle of a higher, twice-born caste in order to raise its social status.

Give two criticisms of the concept of sanskritisation.

It exaggerates social mobility (only positional, not structural, change), accepts upper-caste ways as superior, justifies hierarchy, and erodes the worth of Dalit labour and culture.

How did M.N. Srinivas define westernisation?

As the changes brought about in Indian society and culture by over 150 years of British rule, including changes in technology, institutions, ideology and values.

What characteristics define modernisation?

A shift from local to universal ties, from emotion and the sacred to reason and science, from group to individual, from birth-based to choice-based roles, and from fatalism to mastery.

What is meant by the secularisation of caste?

The transformation of caste from a religious institution based on purity and pollution into political pressure groups and caste-based parties pursuing secular demands.

Why does westernisation not necessarily mean adopting modern values?

Because people may adopt western dress, goods or styles while still holding conservative, undemocratic or prejudiced attitudes, for example towards women or other communities.

Why are sanskritisation, westernisation, modernisation and secularisation said to overlap?

Because they often coexist and operate together, so the same person or group can be modern in some respects and traditional in others.

Cultural Change

Class 12 Sociology · Social Change and Development in India · Chapter 2

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CBSE Class 12 · Sociology

Five examined chapters, 2025 Qs mapped

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CBSE Class 12 · Sociology

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Summary

Alongside the structural changes of colonialism came cultural change — in ways of life, norms, values and even body language. The chapter looks at two developments. First, the deliberate social reform movements of the 19th and early 20th centuries, which fought social evils such as sati, child marriage, the ban on widow remarriage and caste discrimination. These reformers — among them Raja Ram Mohun Roy, Vidyasagar, Jotiba Phule, Pandita Ramabai, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Viresalingam — combined modern western liberal ideas with a fresh reading of traditional texts, aided by new modes of communication (the printing press, railways), new organisations (Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj) and new ideas. Female education was intensely debated. Second, the chapter explains four less deliberate processes of cultural change. Sanskritisation (M.N. Srinivas' term) is the adoption of upper-caste customs by lower castes to raise status, criticised for accepting hierarchy and eroding Dalit culture. Westernisation is change resulting from over 150 years of British rule, affecting technology, institutions, dress and thought. Modernisation is the shift towards universal, rational, individual and choice-based ways of life, while secularisation is the declining influence of religion — though in India ritual often has secular dimensions and caste has itself become 'secularised' into political pressure groups. These processes overlap and coexist, often within the same person.

Key terms

Social reform movements

19th and early 20th-century movements against evils like sati, child marriage and caste discrimination.

Sanskritisation

The adoption of upper-caste customs and rituals by lower castes to raise their status.

Westernisation

Changes in Indian society and culture resulting from over 150 years of British rule.

Modernisation

The shift towards universal, rational, individual and achievement-based ways of life.

Secularisation

The declining influence of religion in social life and the secular use of ritual.

De-sanskritisation

Where non-Sanskritic dominant castes set the cultural tone of a region.

Extra questions & answers

Try one from this chapter

Which was a social evil targeted by 19th-century reform movements?

Flashcards & interactive practice