What is financial infrastructure?

The network of banks, payment systems and stock markets that helps manage money

What are the main things a bank does?

Holds deposits and lends money as loans

How do banks make money?

They pay lower interest on deposits and charge higher interest on loans

Earning interest on previous interest as well as on the original amount

Who were the Hindu Shahis, and why was the Khyber Pass important?

The Hindu Shahis were a powerful dynasty that resisted invasions and controlled the Khyber Pass, a major mountain pass and trade route through which many invaders entered the Subcontinent.

Who was al-Biruni, and what did he write?

He was a Persian scholar who accompanied Mahmud, learned Sanskrit, read Indian texts, and wrote an encyclopaedic survey of Indian religion, philosophy, literature, geography and sciences.

Who was Bhaskaracharya?

Born in 1114, he was one of India's greatest mathematicians and astronomers, author of the Lilavati, Bijaganita and Siddhantashiromani, whose works remained popular for centuries.

Why were the Cholas called masters of the seas?

Under Rajaraja and Rajendra Chola the empire conquered islands and parts of Sri Lanka and launched a famous naval expedition against the Shrivijaya Empire to protect its maritime trade.

Who was Bhoja of the Paramaras?

He was a scholar-king of Malwa who ruled from 1010 for almost half a century, known for efficient governance, public works like the Bhojtal lake, and writing treatises on many subjects.

What happened at the two Battles of Tarain?

Prithviraja III defeated Muhammad Ghuri at the First Battle of Tarain in 1191, but Muhammad returned with a larger army and defeated him at the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192.

What did Bakhtiyar Khilji do in eastern India?

He conducted campaigns from the end of the 12th century, conquering Bihar and Bengal and destroying great Buddhist centres of learning like Nalanda and Vikramashila, which hastened the decline of Buddhism in India.

What thinkers and reformers appeared in this period?

Ramanujacharya developed the school of vishishtadvaita vedanta emphasising bhakti, while Basaveshvara founded the Lingayat movement, rejecting caste distinctions and writing vachanas in Kannada.

Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

Q: Why are the 11th and 12th centuries seen as a turning point?

Because invasions by Turkic powers penetrated much deeper into north India than before and marked the start of foreign rule in parts of the north, altering the balance of power and bringing Islam as a new creed.

Q: How many campaigns did Mahmud of Ghazni conduct, and what did he do?

He conducted seventeen campaigns into India, plundering and destroying temples at Mathura, Kannauj and Somnath and returning each time to Ghazni with huge amounts of booty.

Class 7 Social Science · Exploring Society Part 2 · Chapter 4

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Summary

This chapter treats the 11th and 12th centuries as a turning point in Indian history, when invasions by Turkic powers penetrated deep into north India despite stubborn resistance from native kingdoms. It begins with the Ghaznavid invasions: after the Hindu Shahis lost control of the Khyber Pass, Mahmud of Ghazni conducted seventeen campaigns into India, plundering and destroying temples at Mathura, Kannauj and Somnath and carrying away enormous booty. The chapter introduces the scholar al-Biruni, who accompanied Mahmud, learned Sanskrit and wrote an encyclopaedic survey of Indian sciences, and the great mathematician Bhaskaracharya, author of the Lilavati. It surveys kingdoms that flourished in this age — the Senas and Eastern Gangas in the east (builders of the Jagannatha and Konark temples), the Kakatiyas and Hoysalas in the Deccan (famous for their temples), the Cholas as 'masters of the seas' under Rajaraja and Rajendra, and the scholar-king Bhoja of the Paramaras. It then describes the Ghurid invasions: Muhammad Ghuri, after losing to Prithviraja III at the First Battle of Tarain, defeated him in 1192 and went on to capture Delhi, while his general Bakhtiyar Khilji destroyed centres of learning like Nalanda. The chapter stresses resilience, the survival of trade, art, literature and thinkers like Ramanujacharya and Basaveshvara, and the enduring power of knowledge and creativity.

The Ghaznavid invasionsAl-Biruni and BhaskaracharyaKingdoms of the east, Deccan and southThe Ghurids and the conquest of DelhiResilience, thinkers and culture

Key terms

Turkic

Peoples, languages and cultures historically associated with a vast region from Central Asia to Turkey, the source of the invaders of this period.

Khyber Pass

A major mountain pass through the Hindu Kush range, long a trade route and the entry point for many invaders into the Subcontinent.

Sultan

A word of Arabic origin meaning 'authority' or 'power', a title assumed by rulers like Mahmud to mean a sovereign king.

Lilavati

Bhaskaracharya's famous mathematics text that uses lively riddles and problems to teach basic mathematics.

Second Battle of Tarain

The 1192 battle in which Muhammad Ghuri defeated Prithviraja III, opening the way to the conquest of Delhi.

Vachanas

Short Kannada poems by the reformer Basaveshvara that convey his spiritual and ethical vision and his rejection of caste distinctions.

Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

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