Peasants, Zamindars and the State — Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire (c. sixteenth-seventeenth centuries)
Class 12 History · Themes in Indian History Part II · Chapter 4
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Summary
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries about 85 per cent of Indians lived in villages, where peasants, zamindars and the Mughal state were linked through agricultural production. The chapter relies heavily on the Ain-i-Akbari, compiled by Abu'l Fazl, along with revenue records and regional sources. The basic unit was the village, worked by peasants (raiyat) who grew a wide range of crops — food grains, and cash crops such as cotton, sugarcane and indigo — using monsoon and irrigation. Peasants were not all alike: some held more land and resources than others. The village had its own officials, panchayats and artisans, and caste and gender shaped who did what work; women played an essential role in production though they faced many restrictions. Zamindars were a privileged rural class who held extensive lands, controlled armed retainers and collected revenue, often passing it to the state while keeping a share. The Mughal state, which drew most of its income from the land, built an elaborate revenue system under Akbar; revenue was assessed (jama) and collected (hasil), sometimes in cash. The Ain-i-Akbari documents provinces, prices, administration and the imperial household, though it presents an official, idealised view. Trade, money and markets reached into villages as crops were sold, linking the countryside to towns and even global commerce.
Peasants and agricultural productionThe village community and panchayatZamindars and rural societyThe Mughal land-revenue systemThe Ain-i-Akbari and trade
Key terms
Raiyat
A peasant cultivator, the basic producer in Mughal agrarian society.
Zamindar
A privileged landholder who collected revenue, controlled retainers and enjoyed superior rights in land.
Ain-i-Akbari
The administrative record compiled by Abu'l Fazl describing Akbar's empire, economy and household.
Jama and hasil
The assessed revenue (jama) and the amount actually collected (hasil) in the Mughal system.
Panchayat
The village assembly of elders that managed local affairs and disputes.
Cash crop
A crop such as cotton, indigo or sugarcane grown mainly for sale in the market.
Extra questions & answers
Try one from this chapter
About what proportion of Indians lived in villages in the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries?