What traumatic event does Zitkala-Sa describe at the school?

The forcible cutting of her long hair

Why was the cutting of her hair so humiliating to Zitkala-Sa?

Among her people, shingled hair was worn by cowards and mourners

Why do historians rely mainly on archaeology to study the Harappan Civilisation?

Because the Harappan script has not been deciphered, written records cannot be read, so material remains — houses, seals, pottery, tools and bones — are the principal evidence.

What were the three phases of the Harappan Civilisation?

Early Harappan (a formative phase), Mature Harappan (c. 2600-1900 BCE, the urban climax) and Late Harappan (the period of decline after c. 1900 BCE).

How was a typical Harappan city such as Mohenjodaro planned?

It was divided into a raised, walled Citadel to the west and a larger Lower Town laid out on a grid, with streets meeting at right angles and an elaborate covered drainage system.

What does the Great Bath suggest about Harappan life?

Located on the Citadel at Mohenjodaro, its careful waterproof construction suggests it was used for special ritual bathing rather than everyday use.

What evidence shows Harappan craft specialisation?

Specialised centres such as Chanhudaro and Lothal for bead-making, shell-cutting and metalwork, and finds of raw materials, tools and finished objects, indicate skilled craftspeople.

What was the staple food base of the Harappans?

Cereals such as wheat and barley, along with lentils, chickpea and sesame; animal bones show cattle, sheep, goat and buffalo were reared, and fish and fowl were eaten.

How did the Harappans manage water and drainage?

Houses had wells and bathing platforms; waste water flowed through covered drains laid along streets into larger channels, reflecting careful civic planning.

What evidence points to Harappan long-distance trade?

Harappan seals and artefacts found in Mesopotamia, references to Meluhha, and imported raw materials such as carnelian, copper, gold and tin indicate wide trade networks.

Why do scholars debate Harappan political authority?

Uniform artefacts, standardised weights, planned cities and seals suggest a central authority, but there is no clear evidence of palaces or rulers, so its exact nature remains uncertain.

How was the Harappan Civilisation rediscovered?

Cunningham noted Harappan seals in the nineteenth century; in 1924 John Marshall announced the discovery of an ancient civilisation at Harappa and Mohenjodaro, dating it earlier than expected.

Bricks, Beads and Bones — The Harappan Civilisation

Class 12 History · Themes in Indian History Part I · Chapter 1

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Summary

The Harappan or Indus Valley Civilisation is reconstructed almost entirely from archaeology — houses, pots, ornaments, tools, seals and bones — because its script remains undeciphered. The Mature Harappan phase (c. 2600-1900 BCE) was the urban climax, preceded by an Early Harappan formative phase and followed by a Late Harappan decline. Settlements stretched across Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Sind, Punjab and parts of India such as Gujarat, Haryana and Rajasthan. Subsistence rested on wheat, barley, lentils, sesame and the domestication of cattle, with evidence of fish and fowl in the diet. Towns like Mohenjodaro were laid out on a grid, divided into a raised Citadel and a Lower Town, with a remarkable drainage system, the Great Bath, granaries and standardised baked bricks. Craft production — bead-making (Chanhudaro, Lothal), shell, copper and bronze work — and long-distance trade reaching Mesopotamia (the land of Meluhha) point to organised economic life. Seals, weights, the script and uniform artefacts suggest some central authority, though its exact nature is debated. From c. 1900 BCE the cities declined; the Harappan script was lost. The chapter also tells how the civilisation was discovered — Cunningham, Marshall, the 1924 announcement — and how archaeologists interpret material remains, classify objects as sacred or utilitarian, and revise conclusions as new evidence appears.

Subsistence, agriculture and foodTown planning: Citadel, Lower Town and drainageCrafts, seals and tradeAuthority and the end of the civilisationDiscovering and interpreting archaeology

Key terms

Citadel

The raised, walled western part of a Harappan town built on mud-brick platforms, housing structures like the Great Bath and granary.

Lower Town

The larger, residential area of a Harappan city, laid out on a grid of streets meeting at right angles.

Mature Harappan

The urban phase of the civilisation, c. 2600-1900 BCE, marked by planned cities, seals, weights and writing.

Meluhha

The name Mesopotamian texts used for the Harappan region, a partner in long-distance trade.

Steatite

A soft stone used to carve Harappan seals, often bearing animal motifs and undeciphered script.

Mohenjodaro

A major Harappan city in Sind whose drainage, Great Bath and Lower Town are best preserved.

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Why do historians depend mainly on archaeology to study the Harappan Civilisation?

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Bricks, Beads and Bones — The Harappan Civilisation

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Summary

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Practice quiz · Bricks, Beads and Bones — The Harappan Civilisation

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