What traumatic event does Zitkala-Sa describe at the school?

The forcible cutting of her long hair

Why was the cutting of her hair so humiliating to Zitkala-Sa?

Among her people, shingled hair was worn by cowards and mourners

Who founded the Vijayanagara Empire and when?

According to tradition and inscriptions, the brothers Harihara and Bukka founded it in 1336.

How was the ruined city of Vijayanagara rediscovered?

Colonel Colin Mackenzie brought the ruins at Hampi to light from 1800, preparing the first survey map; later inscriptions, photographs and travellers' accounts added to knowledge.

Which dynasties ruled Vijayanagara?

Four dynasties in turn — the Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu — governed the empire.

Who was Krishnadeva Raya?

The most famous ruler of Vijayanagara (r. 1509-29) of the Tuluva dynasty, known for military expansion and for building temples and gopurams.

What was the amara-nayaka system?

A political innovation, possibly derived from the iqta system, in which military commanders held territories, collected revenue, kept part of it and maintained horses and elephants for the king.

How were the water needs of Vijayanagara met?

Through embankments, reservoirs and tanks such as the Kamalapuram tank, and canals like the Hiriya canal that drew water from the Tungabhadra.

Why were agricultural tracts enclosed within the fortifications?

To protect food supplies during long sieges, since the objective of medieval sieges was often to starve defenders into submission.

What were the main zones of the city?

A sacred centre with great temples, a royal centre with palaces and ceremonial platforms, and an urban core with markets and houses.

What does the architecture of the royal centre reveal?

Buildings such as the Lotus Mahal and elephant stables blended Indo-Islamic and local styles, reflecting the cosmopolitan culture of the court.

How did the Vijayanagara Empire decline?

In 1565 the combined armies of the Deccan Sultanates defeated Rama Raya at Talikota (Rakshasi-Tangadi) and sacked the city, after which it was abandoned.

An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara (c. fourteenth to sixteenth century)

Class 12 History · Themes in Indian History Part II · Chapter 3

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CBSE Class 12 · History

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Summary

Vijayanagara, the "city of victory," was both a city and an empire founded in 1336 by the brothers Harihara and Bukka. At its height it stretched from the Krishna river to the far south. The chapter reconstructs its history from ruins at Hampi, brought to light from 1800 by Colin Mackenzie, together with inscriptions, monuments and accounts of foreign travellers such as Abdur Razzaq, Nicolo de Conti, Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz. Four dynasties — Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu — ruled; the most famous king, Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva line, expanded the empire and built temples and gopurams. The amara-nayaka system, possibly derived from the Delhi Sultanate's iqta, gave military commanders territories whose revenue maintained troops, though rebellious nayakas later weakened the centre. The city was defended by seven lines of fortification that enclosed not only buildings but farmland, and was supplied by elaborate waterworks like the Kamalapuram tank and Hiriya canal. Its layout had a sacred centre with great temples such as the Virupaksha and Vitthala, a royal centre with the mahanavami dibba, Lotus Mahal and elephant stables blending Indo-Islamic and local styles, and bustling bazaars. In 1565 the combined Deccan Sultanates defeated Vijayanagara at Talikota (Rakshasi-Tangadi) and sacked the city. The chapter also explains how archaeologists mapped and studied the site, declared a World Heritage site in 1986.

Founding and rulers of the empireThe amara-nayaka systemFortifications and water resourcesSacred and royal centresDecline, rediscovery and archaeology

Key terms

Vijayanagara

The "city of victory" and the empire founded in 1336 in the Krishna-Tungabhadra region.

Amara-nayaka system

A political arrangement under which military commanders held territories and maintained troops from their revenue.

Raya gopurams

The towering royal gateways of Vijayanagara temples, marks of imperial authority.

Mahanavami dibba

A massive platform in the royal centre linked with the great Mahanavami festival.

Krishnadeva Raya

The most famous Vijayanagara ruler (r. 1509-29) of the Tuluva dynasty, a great builder.

Hampi

The local name for the ruined site of Vijayanagara, rediscovered from 1800.

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In which year was the Vijayanagara Empire founded according to tradition?

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An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara (c. fourteenth to sixteenth century)

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Practice quiz · An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara (c. fourteenth to sixteenth century)

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