Bricks, Beads and Bones — The Harappan Civilisation
Class 12 History · Themes in Indian History Part I · Chapter 1
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Summary
The Harappan or Indus Valley Civilisation is reconstructed almost entirely from archaeology — houses, pots, ornaments, tools, seals and bones — because its script remains undeciphered. The Mature Harappan phase (c. 2600-1900 BCE) was the urban climax, preceded by an Early Harappan formative phase and followed by a Late Harappan decline. Settlements stretched across Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Sind, Punjab and parts of India such as Gujarat, Haryana and Rajasthan. Subsistence rested on wheat, barley, lentils, sesame and the domestication of cattle, with evidence of fish and fowl in the diet. Towns like Mohenjodaro were laid out on a grid, divided into a raised Citadel and a Lower Town, with a remarkable drainage system, the Great Bath, granaries and standardised baked bricks. Craft production — bead-making (Chanhudaro, Lothal), shell, copper and bronze work — and long-distance trade reaching Mesopotamia (the land of Meluhha) point to organised economic life. Seals, weights, the script and uniform artefacts suggest some central authority, though its exact nature is debated. From c. 1900 BCE the cities declined; the Harappan script was lost. The chapter also tells how the civilisation was discovered — Cunningham, Marshall, the 1924 announcement — and how archaeologists interpret material remains, classify objects as sacred or utilitarian, and revise conclusions as new evidence appears.
Subsistence, agriculture and foodTown planning: Citadel, Lower Town and drainageCrafts, seals and tradeAuthority and the end of the civilisationDiscovering and interpreting archaeology
Key terms
Citadel
The raised, walled western part of a Harappan town built on mud-brick platforms, housing structures like the Great Bath and granary.
Lower Town
The larger, residential area of a Harappan city, laid out on a grid of streets meeting at right angles.
Mature Harappan
The urban phase of the civilisation, c. 2600-1900 BCE, marked by planned cities, seals, weights and writing.
Meluhha
The name Mesopotamian texts used for the Harappan region, a partner in long-distance trade.
Steatite
A soft stone used to carve Harappan seals, often bearing animal motifs and undeciphered script.
Mohenjodaro
A major Harappan city in Sind whose drainage, Great Bath and Lower Town are best preserved.
Extra questions & answers
Try one from this chapter
Why do historians depend mainly on archaeology to study the Harappan Civilisation?