Bhakti-Sufi Traditions — Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts (c. eighth to eighteenth century)
Class 12 History · Themes in Indian History Part II · Chapter 2
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Summary
Between the eighth and eighteenth centuries, new devotional movements transformed religious life. This chapter studies the Bhakti and Sufi traditions through compositions of poet-saints, hagiographies and shrines. As the worship of Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess grew, the Puranas integrated local cults, and many people sought a personal, emotional bond with the divine. In south India the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva), including figures from varied social backgrounds, sang in Tamil and challenged caste hierarchy. Later, the Virashaivas or Lingayats of Karnataka, led by Basavanna, rejected caste, ritual and the authority of the Brahmanas. In north India, saint-poets such as Kabir, who drew on both Hindu and Islamic ideas and rejected formal religion, and Guru Nanak, whose teachings formed the basis of Sikhism, stressed devotion to one formless God. Women saints like Andal and Mirabai expressed intense personal devotion that defied social norms. Alongside Bhakti, Islamic mysticism — Sufism — spread through orders or silsilas such as the Chishtis; saints (shaikhs) lived in hospices (khanqahs), and their tombs (dargahs) became centres of pilgrimage where music (qawwali) and shared devotion drew people of all faiths. The chapter shows how these traditions, preserved orally and later compiled, used regional languages, questioned hierarchy and created a rich, shared devotional culture, while reminding us of the challenges of using such sources.
Growth of devotional worshipAlvars, Nayanars and LingayatsKabir, Nanak and north Indian saintsSufism, silsilas and shrinesUsing devotional sources critically
Key terms
Bhakti
Devotion to a personal god, often expressed through poetry and song in regional languages.
Alvars and Nayanars
South Indian devotees of Vishnu and Shiva who sang in Tamil and challenged caste hierarchy.
Lingayats
Followers of Basavanna in Karnataka who rejected caste, ritual and Brahmanical authority.
Sufism
Islamic mysticism emphasising love of God, often organised into orders called silsilas.
Khanqah
A Sufi hospice where a shaikh lived with disciples and visitors.
Dargah
The tomb-shrine of a Sufi saint, which became a centre of pilgrimage and devotion.
Extra questions & answers
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Devotion to a personal god, often expressed in regional poetry and song, is called