What went wrong when the king rode under the arch?

It was too low and knocked off his crown

How does the chain of blame unfold in the poem?

Each accused person blames another, ending with the king's own changes

Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential that results from experience or practice, not from fatigue, drugs or maturation.

Describe classical conditioning with Pavlov's experiment.

A neutral stimulus (bell) repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) eventually elicits a conditioned response (salivation) on its own.

What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant consequence to strengthen a response, while negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant condition to strengthen a response.

How does reinforcement differ from punishment?

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour, whereas punishment introduces an unpleasant consequence to decrease the likelihood of a behaviour.

What is observational learning?

It is learning by observing and imitating the behaviour of a model, as demonstrated in Bandura's experiments with aggressive models.

Explain insight learning.

Insight learning is the sudden perception of relationships and the solution to a problem, shown by Kohler's chimpanzees who reorganised the situation to reach a banana.

Differentiate generalisation and discrimination.

Generalisation is responding similarly to stimuli resembling the conditioned stimulus, while discrimination is responding only to the specific conditioned stimulus.

What is verbal learning?

It is the learning of associations between words and concepts using methods such as paired-associate, serial and free-recall learning.

Name the three phases of skill learning.

The cognitive phase, the associative phase and the autonomous phase.

Name three common learning disabilities.

Dyslexia (difficulty in reading), dysgraphia (difficulty in writing) and dyscalculia (difficulty in arithmetic).

Learning

Class 11 Psychology · Psychology · Chapter 5

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Summary

Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by experience or practice; it must be distinguished from temporary changes due to fatigue, drugs or maturation. The chapter describes several paradigms of learning. In classical conditioning, discovered by Pavlov, a neutral stimulus paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response; its determinants include the time relations, type, intensity and number of pairings. In operant or instrumental conditioning, studied by Skinner and based on Thorndike's law of effect, behaviour is shaped by its consequences through reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment; determinants include the schedules and delay of reinforcement. Key learning processes include reinforcement, extinction, generalisation and discrimination. Other forms of learning are observational learning (imitating a model, as in Bandura's work), cognitive learning (insight learning shown by Kohler and cognitive maps shown by Tolman), verbal learning (associating words and concepts through paired-associate and serial learning), and skill learning, which moves through cognitive, associative and autonomous phases. Factors that facilitate learning include motivation, readiness, knowledge of results and transfer of learning. Learning disabilities such as dyslexia, dysgraphia and dyscalculia reflect difficulty in acquiring specific academic skills despite adequate intelligence.

Nature of LearningParadigms of LearningClassical ConditioningOperant/Instrumental ConditioningKey Learning ProcessesObservational LearningCognitive LearningVerbal LearningSkill LearningFactors Facilitating LearningLearning Disabilities

Key terms

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential brought about by experience or practice.

Classical conditioning

A form of learning in which a neutral stimulus, after pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned response.

Operant conditioning

Learning in which behaviour is strengthened or weakened by its consequences, studied by Skinner.

Reinforcement

Any event following a response that increases the probability that the response will recur.

Observational learning

Learning by watching and imitating the behaviour of a model, demonstrated by Bandura.

Insight learning

A sudden grasp of the solution to a problem through reorganising the perceptual field, shown by Kohler.

Learning disability

A difficulty in acquiring specific academic skills such as reading or arithmetic despite normal intelligence.

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Learning is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to:

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