The Rise of Nationalism in Europe — Class 10 Social Science
History — India and the Contemporary World-II · Chapter 1Rising
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Chapter summary
Key ideas & terms
- Nation-state
- A state whose people share a common identity, history and political belonging.
- Liberalism
- A 19th-century ideology stressing individual freedom, equality before law and government by consent.
- Conservatism
- A belief in preserving traditional institutions like monarchy, church and family.
- Plebiscite
- A direct vote by the people of a region to accept or reject a proposal.
- Absolutist
- A government with centralised, unrestrained and undemocratic monarchical power.
- Allegory
- A figure or image that stands for an abstract idea, such as Marianne for France.
- Conservatism order
- The system restored at the Congress of Vienna, 1815, to undo revolutionary change.
- Ethnic nationalism
- National identity based on a shared language, culture and descent.
Extra questions & answers
What was the main contribution of the French Revolution to nationalism?
It shifted sovereignty from the monarch to the citizens, creating the idea of a nation of equal people with a common identity, flag, language and laws.
What reforms did Napoleon introduce in the regions he controlled?
The Civil Code (Napoleonic Code) ending feudal privileges, equality before the law, the right to property, and uniform administration, laws, weights and measures.
Who were the liberal nationalists and what did they want?
Mostly the educated, propertied middle class who wanted constitutions, representative government, freedom of markets, and the end of state restrictions on trade.
How was Germany unified?
Prussia, led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and its army, unified Germany through three wars over seven years against Denmark, Austria and France, with the king of Prussia proclaimed German Emperor in 1871.
Why were the Balkans a source of nationalist tension by 1900?
Slavic nationalities under the declining Ottoman Empire each sought independence, while big powers competed for influence, making the region explosive.
What was the role of language in developing nationalist feelings?
A common language, songs and literature helped people feel they belonged to one nation; in Poland, for example, the use of Polish became a symbol of resistance against foreign rule.
Who was Giuseppe Mazzini, and what did he want?
An Italian revolutionary who founded the secret society Young Italy and worked for a unified Italian republic based on the idea of nationalism.
What economic step strengthened German nationalism?
The formation of the Zollverein, a customs union in 1834 that removed tariff barriers among German states and created economic unity.
What is meant by liberal nationalism?
A movement that linked the idea of the nation with liberty, equality before the law, constitutional government and freedom of markets, led mainly by the educated middle class.
Why did nationalism become aggressive by the end of the nineteenth century?
Major European powers used nationalism to pursue their own interests and expand their empires, leading to rivalry and tension, especially in the Balkans.
Activity
In what way do you think this print (Fig. 1) depicts a utopian vision?
The print presents an ideal world in which the peoples of different nations march together in peace and fraternity, honour Liberty and enjoy democratic and social republics. Absolutist institutions lie shattered, while national flags and costumes show that distinct nations coexist freely. Since such worldwide unity, equality and democracy did not exist in 1848, the vision is utopian.
Discuss
Summarise the attributes of a nation, as Renan understands them. Why, in his view, are nations important?
According to Renan, a nation is created by a long shared past of effort, sacrifice, devotion, heroic achievements and common memories. Its people must also possess a common will in the present and a desire to continue performing great deeds together. A nation depends on the continuing consent of its inhabitants rather than merely on race, language, religion or territory. Renan considers nations important because their independent existence protects liberty and prevents the whole world from being subjected to one law and one master.
Discuss
Describe the political ends that List hopes to achieve through economic measures.
List hopes that economic unity will lead to political and national unity among the German people. By abolishing internal trade barriers and creating a free economic system, the zollverein would merge individual and provincial interests, strengthen Germany materially, protect its external interests and awaken a common national feeling. Economic cooperation would therefore help transform the separate German states into a united nation.
Activity
Plot on a map of Europe the changes drawn up by the Vienna Congress.
The map should show France reduced to its pre-Napoleonic boundaries and surrounded by stronger states. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, including Belgium, was created to the north of France; Genoa was joined to Piedmont in the south; Prussia received territories on its western frontier and part of Saxony; Austria gained control of northern Italy; Russia received a part of Poland; and the German Confederation of 39 states was retained. These arrangements were intended to contain France and restore a conservative balance of power.
Discuss
What is the caricaturist trying to depict?
The caricaturist is depicting the severe censorship and repression imposed by conservative governments after 1815. The thinkers are shown wearing muzzles and being ordered to remain silent, suggesting that people were not free to express opinions, criticise rulers or discuss liberal ideas. The image mocks governments that feared independent thought and treated even speaking as a threat.
Discuss
Discuss the importance of language and popular traditions in the creation of national identity.
Language and popular traditions helped people recognise a shared culture and imagine themselves as members of one nation. Folk songs, dances, stories and poetry preserved collective memories and carried nationalist ideas to ordinary people, including those who could not read. The Grimm brothers used German folktales and language to strengthen German identity and resist French cultural domination. In partitioned Poland, music, folk dances and the Polish language kept national feeling alive despite Russian rule. Thus cultural traditions became powerful symbols of unity and resistance.
Discuss
Describe the cause of the Silesian weavers’ uprising. Comment on the viewpoint of the journalist.
The uprising was caused by the extreme poverty of the Silesian weavers and the exploitation practised by contractors. Because many workers desperately needed employment, contractors drastically reduced the payments offered for finished textiles. When the weavers demanded higher wages, they were met with scorn and threats, leading them to attack the contractor’s property and storehouse. The journalist is sympathetic to the weavers. He emphasises their misery and presents the contractors as people who took unfair advantage of unemployment, although he also reports the destructive actions of the crowd.
Activity
Imagine you are a weaver who saw the events as they unfolded. Write a report on what you saw.
Report on the Silesian Weavers’ Uprising, 4 June 1845: At about two in the afternoon, a large crowd of weavers left their homes and marched in pairs towards the contractor’s mansion. They demanded fairer wages because their payments had been sharply reduced even though their families were living in great poverty. The contractor answered them with insults and threats. Angered by this treatment, some weavers entered the house and damaged windows, furniture and porcelain, while others broke into the storehouse and tore up supplies of cloth. The contractor fled but returned the next day with soldiers. A violent confrontation followed, and eleven weavers were shot. The incident showed the desperation produced by low wages, unemployment and exploitation.
Discuss
Compare the positions on the question of women’s rights voiced by the three writers cited above. What do they reveal about liberal ideology?
Carl Welcker opposed political equality for women. He claimed that men were naturally suited to public life while women belonged in the home and needed male protection. Louise Otto-Peters argued that liberty was indivisible and that men could not truly support freedom while leaving half of humanity unfree. The anonymous reader also demanded political rights for women, pointing out the injustice of allowing even uneducated men to vote while excluding talented, property-owning women who contributed to the state. These positions reveal a contradiction within liberal ideology: it proclaimed liberty and equality, but many liberals restricted those principles to men. Women had to challenge liberal movements to make their ideals genuinely universal.
Activity
Describe the caricature. How does it represent the relationship between Bismarck and the elected deputies of Parliament? What interpretation of democratic processes is the artist trying to convey?
The caricature shows Bismarck dominating the parliamentary chamber while the elected deputies appear reduced, submissive and unable to challenge him. His commanding posture and whip suggest that he controls Parliament through authority and intimidation rather than persuasion. The image represents an unequal relationship in which the executive power of Bismarck overwhelms the representatives of the people. The artist suggests that democratic institutions can become hollow when elected deputies lack independence and real power.
Activity
The artist has portrayed Garibaldi as holding on to the base of the boot, so that the King of Sardinia-Piedmont can enter it from the top. Look at the map of Italy once more. What statement is this caricature making?
The boot represents the Italian peninsula. Garibaldi is shown securing southern Italy, which he and his volunteers conquered, while King Victor Emmanuel II enters from the north as the ruler of Sardinia-Piedmont. The caricature suggests that Garibaldi’s military achievements made it possible for Victor Emmanuel II to take control of a united Italy. It also shows that republican fighters such as Garibaldi ultimately handed their gains to the monarchy.
Activity
With the help of the chart in Box 3, identify the attributes of Veit’s Germania and interpret the symbolic meaning of the painting.
In an earlier allegorical rendering of 1836, Veit had portrayed the Kaiser’s crown at the place where he has now located the broken chain. Explain the significance of this change.
Veit’s Germania carries several nationalist symbols. The broken chains signify freedom from oppression. The breastplate bearing an eagle represents the strength of the German Empire. The crown of oak leaves stands for heroism. The sword shows readiness to fight, while the olive branch around it expresses a willingness to make peace. The black, red and gold tricolour represents the liberal-nationalist movement of 1848, and the rays of the rising sun suggest the beginning of a new era. Together, these attributes portray Germany as heroic, free, strong and prepared to defend national unity. Replacing the Kaiser’s crown with a broken chain marks a shift from loyalty to a monarch towards the liberal idea of a free nation created by its people. It reflects the growing demand in 1848 for liberty, constitutional government and national unification.
Activity
Describe what you see in Fig. 17. What historical events could Hübner be referring to in this allegorical vision of the nation?
The image shows Germania lying fallen and sorrowful, with symbols of national unity and liberty cast aside. Her defeated posture suggests that the hopes represented by the confident Germania of 1848 have collapsed. Hübner was probably referring to the failure of the liberal-nationalist revolution of 1848–49, the rejection of the imperial crown by Friedrich Wilhelm IV, the suppression of the Frankfurt Parliament and the defeat of attempts to unite Germany under a democratic constitution.
Activity
Look once more at Fig. 10. Imagine you were a citizen of Frankfurt in March 1848 and were present during the proceedings of the parliament. How would you (a) as a man seated in the hall of deputies, and (b) as a woman observing from the galleries, relate to the banner of Germania hanging from the ceiling?
(a) As a male deputy, I would view Germania as a proud symbol of German unity, liberty and the hope of creating a constitutional nation-state. Because I possessed political rights and could participate directly in the Parliament, the banner would appear to represent my own public role in building the nation. (b) As a woman in the gallery, I would also feel inspired by Germania as a female symbol of freedom and unity, but I would recognise a painful contradiction. Although women had supported nationalist movements, they were excluded from voting and allowed to attend only as observers. Germania would therefore symbolise a nation that used a female figure to represent liberty while denying real women equal political rights.
Write in brief
1. Write a note on:
a) Guiseppe Mazzini
Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary born in Genoa in 1805. He joined the secret society of the Carbonari and was exiled in 1831 after attempting a revolution in Liguria. He founded Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne to spread nationalist and republican ideas. Mazzini believed that nations were the natural units of humanity and that fragmented Italy should become a single, unified democratic republic. His opposition to monarchy and his influence on revolutionary societies across Europe made him a major figure in nineteenth-century nationalism.
1. Write a note on:
b) Count Camillo de Cavour
Count Camillo de Cavour was the chief minister of Sardinia-Piedmont and a leading architect of Italian unification. He was a wealthy, educated statesman rather than a revolutionary or democrat. Through diplomacy, political planning and an alliance with France, he helped Sardinia-Piedmont defeat Austria in 1859. His policies placed the monarchy of Victor Emmanuel II at the centre of the movement and enabled the northern and central Italian states to be brought together.
1. Write a note on:
c) The Greek war of independence
Greece had been under Ottoman rule since the fifteenth century. Influenced by revolutionary nationalism, the Greeks began a struggle for independence in 1821. They received support from Greeks living abroad and from many West Europeans who admired ancient Greek civilisation. Poets and artists created sympathy for the Greek cause, while Lord Byron raised funds and joined the struggle. The war ended with the Treaty of Constantinople in 1832, which recognised Greece as an independent nation.
1. Write a note on:
d) Frankfurt parliament
The Frankfurt Parliament was convened in the Church of St Paul on 18 May 1848. It consisted of 831 elected representatives from the German regions who sought to create a united German nation under a constitution. They proposed a monarchy controlled by Parliament and offered the crown to Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia. He rejected it and joined other monarchs in opposing the assembly. The Parliament also lost the support of workers and artisans because its middle-class members resisted their demands. Troops were eventually called in, and the assembly was forced to disband.
1. Write a note on:
e) The role of women in nationalist struggles
Women participated actively in nationalist struggles by forming political associations, founding newspapers, attending meetings and joining demonstrations. They supported demands for constitutional government, liberty and national unity. Nevertheless, they were denied voting rights and membership in representative assemblies. At the Frankfurt Parliament, women were admitted only as observers in the visitors’ gallery. Activists such as Louise Otto-Peters criticised this exclusion and argued that liberty could not be genuine while women remained politically unfree.
2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?
The French revolutionaries transferred sovereignty from the monarch to the citizens and promoted the ideas of la patrie, the fatherland, and le citoyen, the citizen. They adopted the tricolour in place of the royal standard, renamed the elected Estates General as the National Assembly, composed national hymns, took public oaths and commemorated martyrs. They established a centralised administration, introduced uniform laws, abolished internal customs duties and adopted common weights and measures. Regional dialects were discouraged, and the French spoken in Paris was promoted as the common national language.
3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?
Marianne and Germania were female allegories of the French and German nations. Marianne was represented with symbols of Liberty and the Republic, including the red cap, tricolour and cockade. Her statues were placed in public squares, and her image appeared on coins and stamps. Germania wore a crown of oak leaves, symbolising German heroism, and was shown with other symbols of freedom, strength and unity. Portraying nations as recognisable female figures gave concrete form to the abstract idea of a nation. These images helped people identify emotionally with national unity and made nationalist ideals widely visible.
4. Briefly trace the process of German unification.
In 1848, middle-class nationalists tried to unite the German states through the elected Frankfurt Parliament, but the effort was defeated by the monarchy, military and landed aristocracy. Prussia then assumed leadership of unification under its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck. Supported by the Prussian army and bureaucracy, Bismarck fought three wars over seven years against Denmark, Austria and France. Prussian victories brought the German states together. In January 1871, William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles, completing unification under Prussian dominance.
5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?
Napoleon introduced the Civil Code of 1804, or Napoleonic Code, which abolished privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and protected the right to property. In the territories under French control, he simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudalism, freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues and removed restrictions imposed by urban guilds. He also improved transport and communication. Uniform laws, standardised weights and measures and more organised administration made economic exchange and government more efficient.
Discuss
1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
The revolution of the liberals in 1848 was a movement led mainly by educated middle-class people in European regions that lacked independent nation-states. Liberals combined demands for national unification with demands for constitutional and representative government. Politically, they wanted an end to autocracy, a constitution, parliamentary government, freedom of the press, freedom of association and equality before the law. Many supported voting rights for property-owning men, though most did not yet accept universal suffrage or political equality for women. Socially, they opposed aristocratic and clerical privileges and favoured legal equality and individual freedom. Economically, they defended private property, free markets and the removal of state restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.
First, Romantic artists and poets created emotional attachment to the nation by celebrating a shared cultural past. Delacroix’s painting of the massacre at Chios, for example, aroused sympathy for Greek independence. Second, folk traditions strengthened national identity. Thinkers such as Herder argued that the true spirit of a nation lived among ordinary people, while the Grimm brothers collected German folktales and developed the German language as part of nation-building. Third, language and music became forms of resistance in Poland. Karol Kurpinski turned folk dances such as the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols, while the clergy used Polish in religious instruction despite Russian efforts to impose its language.
3. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.
Germany developed from a loose confederation of separate states into a nation-state under Prussian leadership. The liberal attempt at unification through the Frankfurt Parliament failed in 1848. Otto von Bismarck then used the Prussian army, bureaucracy and wars against Denmark, Austria and France to unite the German states. In 1871, William I was proclaimed German Emperor. Italy was also divided into several states, with parts controlled by Austria, the Pope and Bourbon rulers. Mazzini first promoted a united republic, but his uprisings failed. Sardinia-Piedmont then led unification under Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour. An alliance with France defeated Austria, while Garibaldi and his volunteers conquered the south. Victor Emmanuel II became king of united Italy in 1861, and Venetia and Rome were added later.
4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
In much of Europe, nation-states emerged through revolutions, wars for independence or movements that united politically fragmented territories. Britain, however, was formed through a long process in which England gradually extended its power over the other peoples of the British Isles. The English Parliament became the main instrument of nation-building. The Act of Union of 1707 joined England and Scotland, while Ireland was forcibly incorporated in 1801 after the suppression of revolts. English political power and culture dominated the new state, and Scottish and Irish traditions were often repressed. Thus Britain was created less by a popular nationalist revolution than by English expansion and the subordination of other nations.
5. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
Nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans because the region contained many ethnic groups and nationalities, much of it under the weakening Ottoman Empire. As romantic nationalism spread, different peoples used their histories to claim independence and recover territories they believed had once belonged to them. The newly independent Balkan states were jealous of one another and competed for additional land. The conflict was intensified by rivalry among major European powers such as Russia, Germany, Britain and Austria-Hungary, each of which sought greater influence in the region. These competing national and imperial ambitions produced repeated wars and contributed to the outbreak of the First World War.
Project
Find out more about nationalist symbols in countries outside Europe. For one or two countries, collect examples of pictures, posters or music that are symbols of nationalism. How are these different from European examples?
India and the United States provide useful examples. In India, Bharat Mata became an important visual symbol of the nation. She was often shown as a spiritual mother figure associated with the land and its people. The tricolour, the Ashoka Chakra, patriotic songs such as “Vande Mataram”, images of the freedom movement and posters of leaders also became symbols of unity and resistance to colonial rule. In the United States, the Stars and Stripes, the bald eagle, the Statue of Liberty, Uncle Sam posters and patriotic songs have represented independence, republican government and national power. These symbols differ from many nineteenth-century European examples because they arose in different historical settings. Indian nationalism was closely linked to an anti-colonial struggle and often combined modern political ideas with indigenous religious and cultural imagery. American symbols frequently emphasise a constitutional republic, immigration and liberty. European allegories such as Marianne and Germania were mainly created during struggles to overthrow dynastic rule or unite fragmented territories, and they often personified the nation as a heroic female figure.