New Beginnings: Cities and States — Class 7 Social Science
Exploring Society Part 1 · Chapter 4
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- Space weighted by chapter size
- Charts from the book's own data
- Traps corrected
- Space weighted by chapter size
- Charts from the book's own data
- Traps corrected
- Space weighted by chapter size
- Charts from the book's own data
- Traps corrected
Chapter summary
Key ideas & terms
- Second Urbanisation
- The new phase of city-building that began in the Ganga plains in the 1st millennium BCE, long after the Harappan First Urbanisation declined.
- Janapada
- A Sanskrit term meaning 'where people have set foot'; an early territory or small state led by a raja, often associated with a clan.
- Mahajanapada
- A larger state formed when janapadas merged; sixteen are most often listed, ranging across north and central India.
- Gana or sangha
- A mahajanapada that was not a monarchy but an 'early republic', where the assembly took decisions and even selected the ruler, as in Vajji and Malla.
- Punch-marked coins
- India's earliest coins, made of silver with symbols punched onto them, introduced as trade grew.
- Varna-jati system
- A two-fold system of social organisation: jati, a community tied to an occupation, and varna, the four-fold Vedic categories.
Extra questions & answers
What is meant by India's 'Second Urbanisation'?
It is the revival of city life in the Ganga plains and nearby regions during the 1st millennium BCE, occurring about a thousand years after the Harappan First Urbanisation declined.
How do historians know about this new phase of cities?
Mainly from archaeological excavations of the ancient urban centres and from late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literature, which is full of references to them.
What does the word 'janapada' mean?
It is a Sanskrit word meaning 'where the people (jana) have set foot (pada)', that is, where they have settled down, led by a raja.
How did mahajanapadas form, and how many are usually listed?
By the 8th–7th centuries BCE several janapadas merged into larger units called mahajanapadas; the more frequent list names sixteen of them.
What were the gana or sangha mahajanapadas?
They were states like Vajji and Malla that were not monarchies but functioned democratically, with the assembly taking major decisions and even selecting the ruler, earning them the name 'early republics'.
What role did the sabha and samiti play?
They were assemblies or councils where matters of the clan were discussed; a good raja was expected to heed their advice, and an incompetent ruler could, according to some texts, be removed.
Why was iron metallurgy so important to urban growth?
Iron tools made large-scale agriculture possible while iron weapons were lighter and sharper than bronze, strengthening armies and helping kingdoms expand.
What were India's first coins like?
They were silver 'punch-marked coins', made by punching symbols into the soft metal, introduced as trade grew; later coins of copper and gold followed.
What were the two categories of the varna-jati system?
Jati, a community of people with a specific occupation passed down through generations, and varna, the four Vedic categories of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
Name two major trade routes of this period.
The Uttarapatha, connecting the northwest to the Ganga plains and eastern India, and the Dakshinapatha, running south from Kaushambi across the Vindhyas.
The Big Questions
1. What is meant by ‘Second Urbanisation of India’?
The ‘Second Urbanisation’ means the second phase in Indian history when towns and cities grew again after a long gap. The first urbanisation was the Harappan or Indus-Sarasvati civilisation which declined around 1900 BCE. For about 1000 years there were mostly villages. In the 1st millennium BCE, from about 1000-600 BCE onwards, new cities grew again in the Ganga plains, the Indus basin and later in other parts of India. This is called the Second Urbanisation because it was confirmed by archaeology and by late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literature. The capitals of the mahajanapadas, with fortifications, markets, crafts, coins and trade, are examples of it, and this urban life has continued till today.
2. Why were the janapadas and mahājanapadas an important development in India’s early history?
They were important because they were the first organised territorial states in India after the Harappan period. Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE people settled as janapadas, meaning ‘where people have set foot’, each clan with its own territory and a raja. By the 8th-7th century BCE many janapadas merged into larger mahajanapadas. There were 16 well-known ones, from Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the east. They led to the Second Urbanisation, built large fortified capital cities, developed agriculture with iron tools, trade, coins, and new ideas in religion, literature and art. They also connected different regions through roads like the Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha.
3. What kind of system of governance did they evolve?
They evolved two main types. Most mahajanapadas like Magadha, Kosala and Avanti were monarchies where the raja was the head, his position usually hereditary from father to son. He collected taxes, maintained law and order, built forts and kept an army, but he was expected to take advice from ministers and from the sabha or samiti, an assembly of elders. Two mahajanapadas, Vajji and Malla, were different. They were called g ana or sangha and worked more like early republics. There the sabha or samiti had more power, decisions were taken after discussion and vote, and even the raja was chosen by the assembly. Scholars call this an early democratic tradition.
LET'S EXPLORE
The most powerful of these new states were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. Looking at the map, can you identify their capitals? Also, how many can you match with Indian cities of today?
Yes. According to the map Fig. 4.3: Magadha - Rajagriha, Kosala - Shravasti, Vatsa - Kaushambi, Avanti - Ujjayini. All four can still be matched with places today. Rajagriha is modern Rajgir in Bihar, Shravasti is a district and pilgrimage town on the Uttar Pradesh border, Kaushambi is a district near Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh, and Ujjayini is modern Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. The chapter notes that most ancient capitals are still living cities today, about 2500 years old.
Compare this map with the map of the regions mentioned in the Mahābhārata (see Fig. 5.4 in the chapter ‘India, That Is Bharat’ in Grade 6) and list the names common to both maps. What do you think this implies?
Common names seen on both maps include Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Shurasena, Gandhara, Kosala, Kashi is often linked to Varanasi region, Magadha, Avanti, Chedi and Kamboja. This implies continuity between the geography remembered in the Mahabharata epic and the historical mahajanapadas of the 1st millennium BCE. It suggests that the epic preserves memory of real clans and territories that later became organised states, and that the same cultural region was important for a long time. It also shows how traditions and literature helped transmit knowledge of places before accurate maps existed.
LET'S EXPLORE
Fill up the following table with a Yes (or tick mark) or No (or cross mark) in each square, which provides an interesting comparison between these two phases of Indian civilisation.
A correct way to fill the table is: Ganga plains - First Urbanisation: No, Second Urbanisation: Yes. The Harappan cities were mainly in the Indus and Sarasvati basins, while the Second Urbanisation was centred on the fertile Ganga plains. Monasteries - First: No, Second: Yes. Monasteries for Buddhist and Jain monks and nuns appear only in the second phase. Literature - First: No, Second: Yes. The Harappan script is unreadable and we have no deciphered literature, while late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literature describes the second phase. Trade - First: Yes, Second: Yes. Both had markets and long-distance trade. Warfare - First: No or very little evidence, Second: Yes. Evidence of wars and alliances between mahajanapadas. Copper/bronze - First: Yes, Second: Yes. Harappans mastered copper and bronze and the later period also used them. Iron - First: No, Second: Yes. Iron tools and weapons became widespread only in the late 2nd millennium BCE and were key to the Second Urbanisation.
LET'S EXPLORE
Why should a complex society divide itself into such groups? Think about several possible factors why this happens.
A complex society divides into groups because it needs division of labour and specialisation. Not everyone can do everything. Farming, building towns, making pots, working metal, teaching, trading, governing and performing rituals each need special skills and training. Groups also form around family, kinship and neighbourhood, and skills are often passed from parents to children, leading to jatis. Organisation also helps in managing a large population, collecting revenue, planning cities and defending territory. Over time common customs, marriage rules and traditions develop within each group.
List other such professions you expect in a complex society of the 1st millennium BCE.
Besides the examples in the chapter, other professions in a 1st millennium BCE city would be: raja, ministers, soldiers, guards, tax collectors, judges, priests, teachers, scribes, doctors or healers, traders and caravan leaders, sailors and boatmen, farmers, herders, carpenters, potters, weavers, dyers, smiths working copper and iron, goldsmiths, bead-makers, stone cutters, builders, masons, road makers, cooks, potters, musicians, dancers, storytellers and cleaners who maintained drains and streets.
THINK ABOUT IT
Inequalities within society can exist in many forms. Have you encountered any incident where you or anyone you know might have been made to feel different from others? Do you think equality is desirable in a society? If so, why? Have you come across people or initiatives that lessened inequalities?
Inequalities can be based on wealth, gender, caste, language, religion, disability or place of living. An example could be someone being teased because they speak a different mother tongue or someone not allowed to play because they are new to the class. Equality is desirable because every person has equal dignity and rights, and when everyone gets fair chances to study, work and participate, society becomes more peaceful, creative and strong. No one should face discrimination for birth or background. Examples that lessen inequalities are schools giving mid-day meals and scholarships so all children can study, laws against untouchability and discrimination, and initiatives like community libraries, self-help groups for women, and campaigns for equal pay and inclusive classrooms.
Questions and activities
1. Consider the quotation at the start of the chapter and discuss in several groups. Compare your observations and conclusions on what Kauṭilya recommends for a kingdom. Is it very different today?
Kautilya in the Arthashastra says a good kingdom should protect people by fortifying the capital and border towns, have land fertile enough to feed its own people and also help outsiders in calamities, be beautiful and rich in fields, mines, timber forests, elephant forests and pastures, not depend only on rain for water, have good roads and waterways, and have a productive economy with many commodities. Today the core ideas are still similar. Modern states still need strong defence and secure borders, food security, help during disasters, good infrastructure, water management through irrigation and reservoirs, and a diversified economy. The difference is that today we also expect democracy, human rights, education, healthcare, environmental protection, and scientific planning, not just a king's rule. So the goals of prosperity, security and connectivity continue, but the way we achieve them is more people-centred.
2. According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early Vedic society?
The text describes the janapada and mahajanapada period which grew from early Vedic traditions. Each janapada had a sabha or samiti, an assembly or council where clan elders discussed matters. The raja was not expected to rule alone or arbitrarily and had to take their advice along with ministers. An incompetent ruler could even be removed by the assembly, though we do not have complete proof that this was a formal law. In monarchies like Magadha the kingship was hereditary, usually the son succeeded the father. In g ana-sanghas like Vajji and Malla the assembly chose the raja through discussion and voting, which was an early republican or democratic practice.
3. Imagine you are a historian studying ancient India. What types of sources (archaeological, literary, etc.) would you use to learn more about the mahājanapadas? Explain how each source might contribute to your understanding.
A historian would use two main kinds of sources mentioned in the chapter. First, archaeological sources: excavations of capitals like Rajagriha, Kaushambi and Shishupalgarh have revealed fortifications, moats, narrow gateways, streets, Northern Black Polished Ware pottery, punch-marked coins, iron tools and weapons, and craft workshops. These show where cities were, how they were built and defended, what people used and how they traded, and help date the period. Second, literary sources: late Vedic texts, Buddhist texts like the Pali Canon, Jain texts and later works like Kautilya's Arthashastra list the names of the sixteen mahajanapadas, their capitals, their political systems, social groups like varna-jati, and trade routes like Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha. Literature tells us about beliefs, governance, and society that pots and walls alone cannot fully explain. Together both sources make the picture complete.
4. Why was the development of iron metallurgy so important for the growth of urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE? You may use points from the chapter but also from your knowledge or imagination.
Iron was important for three main reasons. First, agriculture: iron axes could clear the dense forests of the Ganga plains and iron ploughshares could till the hard alluvial soil more deeply than wooden or bronze tools, producing larger harvests. Surplus food fed more people living together in towns. Second, warfare and protection: iron made stronger, lighter and sharper swords, spears, arrows and shields than bronze, helping kingdoms defend their fortified cities and also fight to expand territory. Third, economy and crafts: iron was more common and cheaper than copper and tin needed for bronze, so tools could be made on a large scale for farmers, carpenters and builders, supporting craft specialisation, trade and city growth. Later iron also helped in making better cart parts and building work. Thus iron linked farming, defence and industry, all needed for cities.