Empires and Kingdoms: 6th to 10th Centuries — Class 7 Social Science
Exploring Society Part 2 · Chapter 3
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- Space weighted by chapter size
- Charts from the book's own data
- Traps corrected
- Space weighted by chapter size
- Charts from the book's own data
- Traps corrected
- Space weighted by chapter size
- Charts from the book's own data
- Traps corrected
Chapter summary
Key ideas & terms
- Early medieval period
- A name historians give the centuries from about 600 to 1200 CE, the dynamic period after the Gupta era covered in this chapter.
- Tripartite struggle
- The three-way contest among the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas for control of the strategic city of Kannauj.
- Rock-cut architecture
- A style of carving temples and caves directly out of rock, seen in Pallava monuments at Mamallapuram and the Rashtrakuta cave at Ellora.
- Bhakti
- A path of personal devotion to the divine, spread in the south by saints such as the Alvars and Nayanars.
- Xuanzang
- A Chinese pilgrim who travelled across India in the 7th century and left detailed accounts of its society, learning and culture.
- Advaita Vedanta
- The philosophical school associated with Adi Shankaracharya, an influential thinker of this period.
Extra questions & answers
What period does this chapter cover, and what is it sometimes called?
It surveys India from about 600 CE to 1200 CE, the centuries after the Gupta era, which historians have called 'post-classical', 'late classical' or 'early medieval'.
Who was Harsha, and where did he rule?
Harsha was a powerful 7th-century king who ruled from Kannauj, a city by the Ganga, and hosted poets and scholars at his court.
Who was Xuanzang, and why is he important?
He was a Chinese pilgrim who travelled across India in the 7th century and left detailed accounts of its society, governance, learning and culture, which serve as valuable historical sources.
What was the tripartite struggle?
It was the three-way contest among the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Palas and the Rashtrakutas for control over the strategically important city of Kannauj.
Which dynasties were powerful in the south and Deccan in this period?
The Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, and the Pallavas, Cholas and Pandyas in the south, all great patrons of temples and art.
What is rock-cut architecture, and where is it seen?
It is the art of carving temples and caves directly out of rock, seen in the Pallava monuments at Mamallapuram and the magnificent Rashtrakuta cave temple at Ellora.
How did the bhakti tradition spread in the south?
Through saint-poets known as the Alvars and Nayanars, who taught personal devotion to the divine and helped make spirituality more accessible.
Who was Adi Shankaracharya?
He was an influential philosopher of this period associated with the school of Advaita Vedanta, whose ideas had a lasting impact on Indian thought.
What happened with the early Arab incursions?
Arabs made repeated attempts to invade and dominate parts of north India, including Sindh, but in the end these incursions had little overall impact on India.
Despite political fragmentation, what continued to flourish in this period?
Trade, art, architecture, literature, philosophy and science continued to flourish, and Indian culture spread to Southeast Asia through exchange.
The Big Questions
1. What major changes characterised this period?
This period from about 600 to 1000 CE was marked by the end of large pan-Indian empires like the Guptas and the rise of many strong regional kingdoms. There was no single empire controlling the whole country. Instead powers like the Pushyabhutis at Kannauj, the Palas in the east, the Gurjara-Pratiharas in the west, the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, the Chalukyas, Pallavas, Pandyas, Cheras and later Cholas ruled different regions. Society became more complex with new jatis, trade and agriculture expanded, and there were major developments in temple architecture, literature in Sanskrit and regional languages, Bhakti traditions, and science and mathematics.
2. How did the political, cultural, and religious developments shape India during this period?
Politically the decentralised system with kings ruling core areas and governing through samantas or vassals created both competition and regional identity. Culturally, rulers patronised poets, scholars, and artists, leading to great literature like Banabhatta’s Kadambari and Harshacharita, magnificent rock-cut temples at Mamallapuram, Ellora and Badami, and universities like Nalanda and Vikramashila. Religiously, most rulers supported Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism together. The Bhakti movement began in south India with the 12 Alvars and 63 Nayanars who taught personal devotion open to all people regardless of varna or gender, and Tantric and Puranic traditions integrated local deities into larger traditions.
3. What was the impact of foreign invasions and interactions on Indian society and polity during this period?
Invasions tested Indian kingdoms but also showed resilience. The Hunas who had weakened the Guptas were defeated in the 6th century by Aulikara kings and soon assimilated into Indian society as soldiers and administrators, adopting Sanskrit, Indian coins and religious symbols. Arab naval raids began in 637 at Thana and later Sindh was conquered in 712 by Muhammad bin Qasim, but Indian rulers like Nagabhata I of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Lalitaditya of Kashmir and others pushed the Arabs back and limited their control to small areas of Sindh for centuries. At the same time peaceful interactions continued through sea trade and the exchange of ideas, for example Indian numerals including zero and works on mathematics and astronomy were translated into Arabic in Baghdad and later reached Europe.
LET'S EXPLORE
Do you recall where the capital of the earlier Maurya and Gupta empires was located?
Yes. The capital of both the Maurya Empire and the later Gupta Empire was Pataliputra, present-day Patna in Bihar, located on the Ganga in the fertile Magadha region.
How do you think this shift may have shaped the sub-continent's politics in the years to come?
The shift of the political centre from Pataliputra in the east to Sthaneshvara and then Kannauj in the western Gangetic plain made control of the Ganga-Yamuna doab very important. Kannauj was centrally located, wealthy and well connected, so every major power wanted it. This competition led to the long Tripartite Struggle and prevented any one dynasty from holding a stable all-India empire, encouraging regional kingdoms to grow strong.
LET'S EXPLORE
If you know the Devanagari script, with the help of your teacher try to identify some of the letters in Harsha's signature (Fig. 3.5).
The signature on the Banskhera copper plate is written in Nagari script, the ancestor of Devanagari. It reads svahasto mama maharajadhiraja shri harshasya meaning By my own hand, the great king of kings Shri Harsha. With a teacher you can spot letters like sa, va, ha, sta, ma, ma, ha, ra, ja, dhi, ra, ja, shri, har, sha, sya which look very similar to modern Devanagari letters, showing how the script has continued with small changes.
LET'S EXPLORE
Looking at the map (Fig. 3.7), can you identify a few mountain passes or desert areas that Xuanzang had to cross while travelling between China and India?
Xuanzang started from Chang'an or Xi'an and travelled west across the Gobi Desert and the Taklamakan Desert, passing oasis towns like Dunhuang, Khotan, Kashgar, Samarkand and Tashkent. He crossed the high Hindu Kush mountains and the Himalayas through difficult passes to reach the plains of India. This route was long, dry and cold and shows how much effort pilgrims made to reach Buddhist centres.
Can you also identify a few important Buddhist centres of learning that Xuanzang visited in India? Do you know something of their significance?
Xuanzang visited many Buddhist centres including Nalanda in Bihar, Bodh Gaya where the Buddha attained enlightenment, Sarnath, Taxila, Mathura, Kannauj, Prayag, Ajanta, Amaravati, Nashik, Bharuch and Kanchipuram. Nalanda was the most famous university of the time with thousands of students and teachers from India and abroad, great libraries and studies in grammar, logic and Buddhist philosophy. Bodh Gaya and Sarnath were holy places linked to the Buddha’s life, while Taxila and Nalanda preserved and taught Buddhist texts that Xuanzang later translated into Chinese.
THINK ABOUT IT
Does the above ceremony remind you of a similar event discussed in Part 1 of this textbook?
Yes, it reminds us of the great assemblies held by Emperor Ashoka and by King Harsha’s predecessor and also the assemblies described in the Gupta period where rulers performed dana or charity. Like Ashoka’s dhamma assemblies and Harsha’s own practice every five years at Prayaga, rulers gave away wealth to monks, Brahmins and the poor to earn religious merit and show that the king was just and generous to all sects.
LET'S EXPLORE
Why was Kannauj so attractive to those powerful dynasties? Observe its location on the map (Fig. 3.3) and discuss in class.
Kannauj, ancient Kanyakubja, stands on the Ganga in the fertile upper Gangetic plain at the centre of north India. Controlling it meant controlling rich agricultural produce, river trade routes, and the traditional symbol of north Indian sovereignty after Harshavardhana made it his capital. That is why the Palas from the east, the Gurjara-Pratiharas from the west and the Rashtrakutas from the Deccan all fought for nearly two centuries to capture it.
THINK ABOUT IT
Al-Masudi, a 10th-century Arab historian and traveller from Baghdad, gave high praise to a Rashtrakuta ruler: "His troops and elephants are innumerable. … There is none among the rulers of Sindh and Hind who in his territory respects the Muslims [as he does]. In his kingdom, Islam is honoured and protected. And, for them, mosques and congregational mosques, which are always full, have been built for offering prayers five times." What does this tell us about the Rashtrakutas?
This account shows the Rashtrakutas were powerful, wealthy and secure, and they practised religious tolerance. Even though they were Hindu and Jain patrons, they respected and protected Muslims, allowed them to build mosques and pray freely, and were admired even by foreign visitors for their good administration and safe roads. It shows the general pluralism of the period where rulers supported many faiths.
LET'S EXPLORE
Form groups in your class to discuss the following questions, then compare the groups' answers. What qualities does Kalhana think a historian should have?
Kalhana says a good historian and poet must be noble-minded and remain free from love or hatred, like a judge. He should carefully examine earlier chronicles, inscriptions, grants and laudatory records, correct errors, check facts and give a connected truthful account without favouring his own king or disliking rivals.
Form groups in your class to discuss the following questions, then compare the groups' answers. What do these lines reveal about his method of gathering information? In what ways does it resemble or differ from the way history is currently written?
Kalhana studied eleven earlier works, compared them, and also inspected temple inscriptions, royal grants and other documents to fix gaps and mistakes. This is similar to modern history which also uses primary sources, cross-checks evidence and is critical. It differs because today historians also use archaeology, coins, scientific dating and wider social and economic evidence, and they emphasise footnotes and peer review more formally.
Form groups in your class to discuss the following questions, then compare the groups' answers. Kalhana also writes, "That noble-minded poet is alone worthy of praise whose words, like that of a judge, remain free from love or hatred in relating the facts of the past." What does he mean by 'free from love or hatred'? How would meeting this condition make a historian more reliable?
Free from love or hatred means not praising a ruler just because you like him or belong to his court, and not blaming a ruler just because you dislike him. A historian who is impartial like a judge will report strengths and faults honestly, so readers can trust his account as balanced and truthful rather than as propaganda.
LET'S EXPLORE
Sankaracharya taught that brahman is the ultimate reality or the pure consciousness, and that the world as we perceive it is maya or illusion. He established four mathas (monasteries and centres of learning) at Badrinath, Puri, Dwarka, and Sringeri. Mark the location of these cities on a map; why do you think he chose four different corners of India rather than more central locations?
Badrinath is in the north Himalayas, Dwarka on the west coast of Gujarat, Puri on the east coast of Odisha, and Sringeri in the south in Karnataka. By placing mathas at the four corners, Shankaracharya could reach people across the whole subcontinent, preserve learning in all regions, encourage pilgrimage and unity, and show that his Advaita Vedanta teaching belonged to all of India, not just one kingdom.
LET'S EXPLORE
Can you identify some of Durga's many weapons? And her vahana?
In the Mamallapuram granite relief Durga is shown with many arms each holding a weapon given by different gods, such as a discus, trident, sword, bow and arrow, conch and club. Her vahana or vehicle is the lion, which she rides as she attacks the buffalo demon Mahishasura.
What are the main differences between her attendants and the demon's attendants?
Durga’s attendants look calm, orderly and divine, supporting her with confidence, while the demon Mahishasura’s attendants look frightened, chaotic and beastly, trying to flee or defend themselves. This contrast highlights good versus evil and the goddess’s power over disorder.
What does the demon's slanted posture and general attitude indicate?
The demon is shown leaning back, off-balance and recoiling before the goddess. This slanted posture shows fear, defeat and loss of strength, making it clear that he is about to be slain and that Durga is triumphant.
DON'T MISS OUT
Why do you think such inscriptions were written in two languages?
Inscriptions used Sanskrit for the praise of the king and his lineage because Sanskrit was the prestigious, pan-Indian language of learning, while the practical details of land grants, boundaries and taxes were written in the local language like Tamil or Kannada so that local farmers, officials and villagers could understand and follow them. Using both ensured prestige and practical communication.
THINK ABOUT IT
How does a professional group transform into a jati? Such a process was complex and could vary from region to region. Let us look at one example. The Kayasthas, historically known as scribes or clerks, were initially a professional group open to different varnas. In the 10th century, they became a distinct jati. In parts of Bengal, certain Brahmana surnames such as Vasu, Ghosha, Datta, and Dama, later came to be associated with Kayasthas, indicating a fusion of Brahmana and non-Brahmana families. Over time, they married mainly within their group, forming the Kayastha jati.
A professional group becomes a jati when people doing the same hereditary occupation start marrying only within the group, develop shared customs and are recognised by society as a distinct community. The Kayasthas show this: they began as clerks and scribes from various varnas, but by restricting marriage within their professional circle and absorbing some Brahmana families, they formed a new jati with its own identity by the 10th century.
LET'S EXPLORE
What details do you observe in these coins (Fig. 3.26)? Why do the coins of Toramana and Skandagupta appear so similar? What conclusions can you draw?
Both coins are round, made of metal, show a king’s portrait on one side and a religious symbol on the other, and use Brahmi script and similar weight and style. Toramana’s Huna coin looks similar to Skandagupta’s Gupta coin because the Hunas adopted Indian minting traditions, titles, scripts and deities like Lakshmi to appear as legitimate Indian rulers and to be accepted by the people who were used to Gupta coins. This shows quick cultural assimilation.
LET'S EXPLORE
What does this suggest about the way the indigenous people responded to invasions?
It shows that local people, including queens and ordinary soldiers, resisted bravely and did not surrender easily. Even after the king’s death they continued to fight, demonstrating courage and a strong sense of duty to protect their land and honour.
Why do you think the queen chose to give away her treasure?
The queen distributed her treasure to motivate and reward her soldiers, showing that she valued brave defence more than personal wealth. By giving them resources she encouraged loyalty and made them fight harder to defend the kingdom against the invaders.
What does this reveal about the role of women in warfare?
It reveals that women, especially queens, could play active roles in warfare as leaders and inspirers. They could command armies, make strategic decisions, share in the dangers of battle, and choose honourable death over capture, showing courage and political agency.
THINK ABOUT IT
Sulaiman, a 9th-century Arab merchant and traveller, makes this comment on a Gurjara-Pratihara ruler: "This king maintains numerous forces, and no other Indian prince has so fine a cavalry. He is unfriendly to the Arabs … there is no greater foe of the Muhammadan faith than he. ... He has riches, and his camels and horses are numerous. … There is no country in India safer from robbers." Why do you think the author calls the ruler a 'foe to the Muslim faith'?
Sulaiman calls him a foe because the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata I and his successors repeatedly defeated Arab armies trying to enter Rajasthan and Malwa, blocking their expansion. From an Arab viewpoint this military resistance to Islamic conquest made the king seem hostile to Islam, even though the main issue was political defence of his kingdom and safety of his people.
THINK ABOUT IT
The table lists common everyday words, highlighting their similar pronunciation across the three languages. By comparing these sounds, you can identify words that are closely related or share common roots in all three languages. With the help of your teacher, use this observation to complete the table. Sanskrit Arabic English sandal sandalwood tambula tanbul karpura camphor pippali filfil
The table shows loanwords carried by trade between India and Arabia. Sanskrit sandal became Arabic sandal and English sandalwood, tambula became tanbul meaning betel leaf, karpura became kafur and English camphor, and pippali meaning pepper became Arabic filfil and influenced English words. By listening to sound changes you can match them. English sandalwood comes from Sanskrit sandal, English betel related to tambula, English camphor from karpura, and English pepper related to pippali via Arabic filfil.
Questions and activities
1. If you lived in Kannauj during the struggle between the Palas, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, how would it change your daily life and your estimate of the rulers? Write a letter on this to your friend living in Kanchipuram.
Dear Friend in Kanchipuram, Life in Kannauj is unsettled these days. Armies march through often, markets close early, taxes are collected again and again to pay for wars, and families worry about safety. We admire brave kings but also feel tired of constant fighting because no ruler stays long enough to repair roads or tanks. We hear that Kanchi under the Pallavas is more peaceful with busy ports. I wonder what life is like there. Your friend in Kannauj.
2. Emperors and kings during this period controlled only core regions and governed other regions through subordinate vassals. What would be the advantages and the challenges of such a system?
Advantages: the king could rely on local samantas who knew the area, raised armies and managed villages, reducing the need for a huge central bureaucracy. Challenges: samantas could become disloyal, rebel or try to overthrow the overlord, as the Rashtrakutas did to the Chalukyas, and wars over loyalty made the empire unstable and caused frequent fighting like the Tripartite Struggle.
3. In what ways were the invasions of the Hunas and the Arabs different in their aims, methods, and impact on the Indian subcontinent? Prepare a write-up, discuss and present it in the class.
The Hunas were Central Asian nomads seeking land and plunder using fast horse archery. After initial raids they were decisively defeated by Indian kings and then quickly assimilated, adopting Indian language, coins and religion. The Arabs came motivated partly by religious expansion after the rise of Islam, using organised armies under commanders like Muhammad bin Qasim. They conquered Sindh in 712 after brutal sieges but were blocked from deeper expansion by Pratihar and other resistance. Unlike elsewhere, they had to allow temple rebuilding and had limited cultural replacement. The Hunas merged into Indian society, while the Arabs remained a limited political presence in Sindh but brought lasting links in trade and science.
4. Imagine you are a common citizen watching the Prayaga assembly. How would you react to Harsha giving away most of his wealth?
As a common person I would be amazed and grateful. Seeing the great king give his wealth to monks, Brahmins and the poor every five years would make me feel he is truly generous and cares for all faiths. I would feel proud, inspired to be more charitable myself, and reassured that dharma is being upheld, even while wondering how the treasury will be filled again.
5. Forming groups, let each group choose one Alvar and one Nayanar and prepare a biography poster or booklet. Include their life stories and a sample poem or two (in translation).
Group task example: Choose Andal among Alvars and Karaikkal Ammaiyar among Nayanars. Poster for Andal: born in Srivilliputhur, devotee of Vishnu, composed Tiruppavai and Nachiyar Tirumoli expressing love for Krishna. Sample verse: I will churn love for you O Vishnu. Poster for Karaikkal Ammaiyar: 6th century devotee of Shiva who left family life, wandered to Shiva’s abode, composed hymns of deep devotion. Sample verse: My heart seeks only your dancing feet O Lord. Include pictures, timelines and translations on the poster.
6. You will notice that our maps show only ancient names for the kingdoms' capitals and main cities. Using a pencil, mark the modern names next to their original names. Refer the current map of India and try to locate those cities on it.
Students can label: Sthaneshvara equals Thanesar in Haryana, Kanyakubja or Kannauj equals Kannauj in Uttar Pradesh, Prayaga equals Prayagraj, Ujjayini equals Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh, Vapi or Badami equals Badami in Karnataka, Aryapura or Aihole equals Aihole, Manyakheta equals Malkheda in Karnataka, Kanchi equals Kanchipuram, Vengi equals Pedda Vegi in Andhra Pradesh, Tanjavur equals Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu, Madurai remains Madurai. Marking these on a modern map shows how political centres have stayed near the same river valleys and coasts for over a thousand years.
(a) Rashtrakutas
(iii) Manyakheta
(b) Gurjara-Pratiharas
(iv) Ujjayini
(c) Cholas
(ii) Tanjavur
(d) Harshavardhana
(v) Kanyakubja
(e) Pallavas
(i) Kanchi