The Age of Reorganisation — Class 7 Social Science
Exploring Society Part 1 · Chapter 6
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- Space weighted by chapter size
- Charts from the book's own data
- Traps corrected
- Space weighted by chapter size
- Charts from the book's own data
- Traps corrected
- Space weighted by chapter size
- Charts from the book's own data
- Traps corrected
Chapter summary
Key ideas & terms
- Age of reorganisation
- The period after the Maurya Empire when old regions were reshaped into many new, competing kingdoms across the Subcontinent.
- Ashvamedha yajna
- A Vedic horse sacrifice performed by rulers to declare their supremacy; a horse wandered freely and any unchallenged land was claimed for the king.
- Sangam literature
- The oldest body of Tamil poetry, composed by assemblies (sangams) of poets, valued by historians for its picture of southern society and culture.
- Matrimonial alliance
- An alliance between two kingdoms arranged through a royal marriage, used as a peaceful means of gaining influence.
- Gandhara and Mathura art
- Two famous schools of Kushana-era sculpture; Gandhara blended Greco-Roman and Indian features in grey schist, while Mathura used red sandstone in a distinctly Indian style.
- Silk Route
- The network of trade routes connecting China with the Mediterranean through Central Asia, controlled in part by the Kushanas.
Extra questions & answers
Why is this period called the 'age of reorganisation'?
Because after the Maurya Empire broke up, the existing regions were reorganised into many new kingdoms that constantly competed to become powerful.
Who ended the Maurya dynasty, and what followed?
The last Maurya emperor was assassinated around 185 BCE by his commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shunga, leading to the break-up of the empire and the rise of many new kingdoms.
What contributions did the Satavahanas make?
They ruled the Deccan, promoted flourishing trade and maritime activity (shown by ships on their coins), contributed to the Karla caves, and often named their kings after their mothers, like Gautamiputra Satakarni.
Who was Kharavela, and what record did he leave?
Kharavela was a Chedi king of Kalinga and a follower of Jain teachings who respected all schools of thought; the Hathigumpha inscription records his military campaigns and welfare works year by year.
What is Sangam literature?
It is the oldest body of Tamil poetry, named after assemblies of poets, expressing personal emotions and societal values, and much used by historians to understand southern society.
What was the Grand Anicut, and who built it?
The Grand Anicut or Kallanai was a water-diversion structure built by the Chola king Karikala across the Kaveri, which brought more land under cultivation and is still in use today.
How did the Indo-Greeks influence Indian culture?
Though they arrived as conquerors, they absorbed local culture, blending Greek and Indian elements; the Heliodorus pillar near Vidisha, raised by a Greek ambassador, praises Vasudeva as the 'god of gods'.
What was special about Kushana coins and art?
Kushana coins depicted a variety of deities like Buddha and Shiva, reflecting tolerance, while their Gandhara and Mathura schools of art fused Indian and Greek styles.
What is the difference between the Gandhara and Mathura schools of art?
The Gandhara school blended Greco-Roman and Indian features using grey-black schist stone, while the Mathura school used red sandstone in a distinctly Indian style with fuller figures.
What major literary works were composed during this period?
Major Sanskrit texts such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana were composed, alongside the Tamil Sangam poetry and epics like the Silappadikaram.
The Big Questions
1. Why is the period that followed the Maurya empire sometimes called the ‘Age of Reorganisation’?
It is called the Age of Reorganisation because after the last Maurya emperor was killed around 185 BCE, his large empire broke up. Former tributary areas became independent and new kingdoms like the Shungas, Satavahanas, Chedis, Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas emerged, while invaders from the northwest like the Indo-Greeks, Shakas and Kushanas also established kingdoms. The political map was therefore reorganised through constant competition, alliances and wars, and cultural life was also reorganised with new art, architecture and literature.
2. What were the values or principles that guided emperors of that period?
Most rulers of this period followed the idea of dharma and respect for all schools of thought. They protected their people, performed welfare works, gave donations of land, cattle and coins to scholars, priests and monks of Vedic, Buddhist and Jaina traditions, and took pride in being tolerant. For example Kharavela said he respected every sect and repaired every temple, Gautami Balashri donated land to Buddhist monks, and Kanishka put both Buddha and Shiva on his coins.
3. How did foreign invaders assimilate into Indian society and contribute to cultural confluence?
Invaders who came through the northwest, especially the Indo-Greeks and Kushanas, did not remain separate. They adopted Indian languages like Brahmi and Sanskrit, worshipped Indian deities like Vasudeva-Krishna and Lakshmi and Shiva, and put them on their coins. They blended Greek and Indian art styles in the Gandhara and Mathura schools, supported Buddhism, and helped expand trade along the Silk Route, creating a mixing of Indian and Central Asian, Greek and Roman traditions with a strong dominance of Indian themes.
LET'S EXPLORE
Create a timeline on a sheet of paper marking the period from the first year of the 2nd century BCE and ending in the last year of the 3rd century CE. How many years does this period cover? As we progress through the chapter, mark the key individuals, kingdoms and events on the timeline.
The 2nd century BCE runs from 200 BCE to 101 BCE, so its first year is 200 BCE. The 3rd century CE runs from 201 CE to 300 CE, so its last year is 300 CE. The span from 200 BCE to 300 CE is
LET'S REMEMBER
While working on the timeline, did you notice the transition from BCE to CE? Remember what you learned in the Grade 6 chapter ‘Timeline and Sources of History’ about how time is measured in history.
Yes, the timeline crosses from BCE, Before Common Era, to CE, Common Era, with the year 1 BCE immediately followed by 1 CE and no year 0 in between. Years in BCE are counted backwards toward CE, so 200 BCE is earlier than 100 BCE. This system lets us place all events on one continuous number line.
LET'S EXPLORE
In the previous chapter, you studied the map of the Maurya empire (see page 100). Above is a map of the post-Maurya period. How many kingdoms can you count in the area that were previously under the control of the Maurya empire?
The Maurya empire had covered almost the whole subcontinent except the far south. On the post-Maurya map that same area is now divided into about eight prominent kingdoms: Indo-Greeks and Kushanas and Shakas in the northwest and north, Shungas in the central north, Chedis in the east, Satavahanas in the Deccan, and Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the south. So the single imperial control has been reorganised into many competing regional kingdoms.
LET'S EXPLORE
Below is a panel from the Bharhut Stūpa. Look at the two figures on the right. What are they doing? Can you guess their profession? Notice their attire. What does this tell us about them? List other details that you notice in the panel and discuss your findings in class.
The two figures on the right appear to be musicians or entertainers, one may be playing a drum or cymbal and the other dancing or moving to music. Their light upper garments, draped lower cloth, heavy jewellery and styled hair suggest they are skilled performers, not ordinary labourers, and are valued enough to be carved on a sacred railing. The panel also shows a large, delicately carved lotus medallion with concentric circles, vine scrolls, and small playful dwarf-like figures holding the vine, all typical of early Buddhist art that tells stories without writing.
LET'S EXPLORE
Look closely at the pictures in the collage in Fig 6.6 (on the previous page). In a note, write down your observations on the clothes, the jewellery, and other objects of daily use.
Clothes: Men wear a dhoti-like lower garment and sometimes a turban or tall headgear, many are bare-chested, women wear long skirts with decorated blouses and elaborate hair buns. Jewellery: Heavy necklaces, large earrings, armlets, bronze bangles covered with gold, hair ornaments and beads are common for both men and women. Objects of daily use: A decorated vase with friezes of people and animals, an ivory comb with fine carving and beads of a necklace, showing high skill in terracotta, metal and ivory craft and a love of ornament.
THINK ABOUT IT
What, according to you, could the tradition of using the mother’s name at the beginning of a king’s name signify?
Putting the mother's name first, like Gautamiputra Satakarni meaning son of Gautami, shows great respect for the mother and her family, recognises the queen's status and power in court, and may have helped legitimise the prince's claim to the throne through a respected royal mother. It hints at a society where mothers had honour and influence, even if succession was still through the male line.
THINK ABOUT IT
In the above series of numerals, which ones look somewhat like our modern numerals? Which ones don’t?
The symbols shown for 1 as a horizontal dash, 2 as two dashes, and 4 as a cross-like shape look quite different from today. The symbols for 6, 7, 9 and 10 already begin to resemble our modern
THINK ABOUT IT
This sculpture of a yakṣha from Pitalkhora carries an inscription on its hand, kanhadāsena hiramakarena kāṭa meaning ‘made by Kanahadasa, a goldsmith’. Is it not interesting to see that a goldsmith could also craft a sculpture made of stone? What do you think this tells us about people’s professions at the time?
It tells us professions were not always rigidly fixed. A skilled artisan who normally worked gold could also be trained to carve stone, so craftsmanship, artistic ability and knowledge of design were valued more than a strict caste or job title. It shows mobility of skills and that guilds and workshops shared techniques across materials.
THINK ABOUT IT
Notice the regularity of the rock-cut chambers sculpted nearly two millennia ago. How did artisans achieve such precision with just a chisel and a hammer? Picture yourself as a sculptor in that era, shaping stone into art with your own hands. What tools would you use?
Artisans achieved precision through careful planning, marking lines with string and charcoal, working slowly from top to bottom, and using a team with iron chisels, hammers, picks and abrasive stones for polishing. If I were a sculptor I would first sketch the design, then rough-cut with a heavy pick-hammer, refine with smaller flat and pointed chisels, smooth with sand and water, and constantly check measurements to keep walls and pillars straight.
THINK ABOUT IT
In the map given on next page, you may notice different symbols alongside the names of the kingdoms. What do these symbols represent? Think about how they highlight the unique identities of the kingdoms.
The symbols are the royal emblems or crests of each southern kingdom: the Chola tiger, the Chera bow and arrow, and the Pandya fish. Such emblems on flags, coins and seals gave each kingdom a unique identity, reminded people of the king's lineage and power, and made it easy to recognise their territory and authority in inscriptions and trade.
THINK ABOUT IT
Observe the statue of the king. How is he depicted? What do his posture, clothing, and expression say about his power and status?
King Karikala is shown standing upright, broad-chested and confident, wearing royal robes and ornaments that mark him as a ruler. His calm, firm facial expression and majestic posture convey authority, strength and the responsibility of a builder-king who controlled water and agriculture for his people's welfare.
THINK ABOUT IT
Have you ever wondered how historians uncover the trade relations between two distant kingdoms many centuries ago? Let’s take a moment to brainstorm and discuss how this information comes to light.
Historians use many clues: coins found far from where they were minted, ship images on Satavahana coins, beads and pottery, inscriptions mentioning tolls at passes like Naneghat, writings by foreign travellers like Megasthenes, and imported goods like Roman glass and Indian pepper found in archaeological digs. Together these traces map out trade routes.
THINK ABOUT IT
The Pānḍyas were known for their pearls. Why do you think pearls were an important article of trade during these times?
Pearls from the Gulf of Mannar were rare, beautiful, durable and light to carry, so they fetched a very high price among Roman and Greek elites and Indian royals. They signified wealth and status, could be used as jewellery and gifts, and were easy to transport over long sea routes, making them ideal for long-distance luxury trade.
LET'S EXPLORE
What do you think might have been the meaning of having deities like Vāsudeva-Kṛṣhṇa or Lakṣhmī on some Indo-Greek coins?
Putting Indian deities on coins showed the Indo-Greek kings respected local beliefs and wanted acceptance from their Indian subjects. It was a political and cultural message that they were not foreign oppressors but legitimate rulers who honoured the gods people worshipped, helping coins be trusted in markets.
LET'S EXPLORE
Carefully observe this massive statue (1.85 m high) and notice the clothing, weapon, and footwear. What does it tell us about this figure?
The headless statue of Kanishka wears a heavy long coat, trousers and large boots typical of Central Asian horsemen, and holds a sword or mace. The thick dress for cold steppe climates, the weapon and the royal inscription calling him great king, king of kings, son of God, show he was a powerful Central Asian warrior who became an Indian emperor and mixed nomadic and Indian royal styles.
LET'S EXPLORE
Observe the coins carefully. Who, besides the emperor, appears on the coin?
Besides the image of Emperor Kanishka himself holding a spear, one coin shows the Buddha labelled as BOΔΔO in Greek letters and another shows the god Shiva with his bull Nandi. This indicates the king honoured multiple religions.
Why would a powerful ruler feature Buddha and Śhiva on his coins? What does it say about his values and priorities?
By featuring both Buddha and Shiva he displayed religious tolerance and the ideal of protecting all faiths, which helped unite a diverse empire with many communities. It shows he valued dharma, coexistence and cultural inclusiveness over imposing a single belief.
Can you find modern examples of such symbolic currency?
Modern Indian coins and banknotes also carry national symbols like the Lion Capital of Ashoka, the lotus, Mahatma Gandhi's portrait, and images that honour diversity and heritage. Many countries put cultural heroes, gods or national monuments on money to build unity and pride, just as Kanishka did.
THINK ABOUT IT
Do you know where Gāndhāra is? Does it remind you of a character from the epic Mahābhārata?
Gandhara was the region around present-day northwest Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan, with Taxila as a famous centre. It reminds us of Gandhari, the princess of Gandhara who married Dhritarashtra, and her brother Shakuni, well-known characters in the Mahabharata, showing how old the name of that region is.
LET'S EXPLORE
Now that you are familiar with the basic characteristics of the Mathurā and Gāndhāra styles of art, study the pictures of artefacts given in Fig. 6.27 on the right page and try to identify which school of art each artefact belongs to. Write your observations with justifications and discuss your answers with your classmates.
Gandhara style uses grey-black schist stone, realistic Greco-Roman drapery and anatomy, so the standing Buddha with flowing robes and the death of Buddha panel with detailed natural folds belong to Gandhara. Mathura style uses red sandstone, fuller and more rounded Indian figures with less Greek influence, so the Shiva linga worship scene, the Naga between Nagis, and the gods Kartikeya and Agni and the Bodhisattva Maitreya in red stone belong to Mathura. The material, robe style and facial features help distinguish them.
Questions and activities
1. Why was the post-Maurya era also known as the era of reorganisation?
The Maurya empire broke apart after about 185 BCE. Its former provinces reorganised into many new independent kingdoms both native like Shungas, Satavahanas, Chedis, Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas and foreign like Indo-Greeks, Shakas and Kushanas. Continuous competition for land through wars and marriage alliances changed the political map, while new developments in art, coinage, literature and trade reorganised society and culture.
2. Write a note on the Sangam literature in 150 words.
Sangam literature is the oldest literature of south India, created between about the 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE in the courts of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas. The word Sangam comes from Sanskrit sangha meaning assembly, referring to gatherings of Tamil poets. It consists of anthologies of poems that describe love, heroism, generosity and daily life with great delicacy. Works like the later epic Silappadikaram, the story of Kannagi, also reflect Sangam ideals of justice and dharma. Historians use Sangam poems to reconstruct society, economy, war and trade of the south, where ports like Puhar thrived and agriculture was supported by works like Karikala's Kallanai dam.
3. Which rulers mentioned in this chapter included their mother’s name in their title, and why did they do so?
Satavahana rulers did this, the clearest example is Gautamiputra Satakarni, called son of Gautami. His mother Gautami Balashri was a powerful queen who donated land to Buddhist monks and left an inscription in Nashik. Using the mother's name honoured her high status, showed her influence at court and may have strengthened the king's legitimacy by linking him to a respected royal mother. A widow queen at Naneghat also left inscriptions after performing Vedic rituals.
4. Write a note of 250 words about one kingdom from this chapter that you find interesting. Explain why you chose it. After presenting your note in class, find out what kingdoms have been the most selected by your classmates.
I find the Satavahana kingdom most interesting because it combined agriculture, sea trade and culture in the Deccan for about four centuries from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE, with capitals at Amaravati and Pratishthana. The fertile Krishna-Godavari delta gave them stable food production, while their coins with ship images and finds of Roman goods show they were great mariners trading pepper, textiles, sandalwood and pearls for glass and perfumes with the Roman Empire. Naneghat caves served as toll stations on trade routes, showing an organised administration. Culturally they were tolerant devotees of Vasudeva but also gave tax-free land to Jaina and Buddhist monks, and beautified the Karla and Pitalkhora caves. Their use of Brahmi script and early numerals that led to our modern numbers is exciting. I chose them because they show how economic prosperity can foster art and tolerance, and because they connected inland India to the wider Indian Ocean world.
5. Imagine you have the chance to create your own kingdom. What royal emblem would you choose, and why? What title would you take as the ruler? Write a note about your kingdom, including its values, rules and regulations, and some unique features.
My kingdom would be called Dhara and its emblem would be a peepal leaf enclosing a wheel of dharma and a small ship, symbolising knowledge, righteous rule and openness to trade. I would take the title Dharanipala, protector of the earth. Values would be respect for all faiths, care for the environment and education for all. Rules would include fair taxes collected only after harvest, free primary schools in every village, protection of forests and rivers, and a council of farmers, artisans and scholars to advise the king. Unique features would be a library cave for manuscripts, rain-water harvesting tanks like the Kallanai, and coins showing both a book and a plough to honour learning and labour.
6. You have read about the architectural developments of the post-Maurya era. Take an outline of the Indian subcontinent and mark the approximate locations of some of the ancient structures mentioned in this chapter.
On an outline map mark: 1. Bharhut Stupa in Madhya Pradesh near Satna, Shunga railings and toranas. 2. Naneghat Caves and Karla Caves and Pitalkhora Caves in Maharashtra near Pune and Lonavala, Satavahana rock-cut caves on trade routes. 3. Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves near Bhubaneswar in Odisha with Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, Chedi period. 4. Kallanai or Grand Anicut on the Kaveri River near Srirangam in Tamil Nadu, built by Chola king Karikala. 5. Heliodorus pillar near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh, Indo-Greek period. 6. Gandhara region around Taxila in northwest Pakistan and Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, centres of Kushana art. This distribution shows building from the northwest to the deep south.