An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara (c. fourteenth to sixteenth century) — Class 12 History

Vijayanagara, the "city of victory," was both a city and an empire founded in 1336 by the brothers Harihara and Bukka. At its height it stretched from the Krishna river to the far south. The chapter reconstructs its history from ruins at Hampi, brought to light from 1800 by Colin Mackenzie, together with inscriptions, monuments and accounts of foreign travellers such as Abdur Razzaq, Nicolo de Conti, Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz. Four dynasties — Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu — ruled; the most famous king, Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva line, expanded the empire and built temples and gopurams. The amara-nayaka system, possibly derived from the Delhi Sultanate's iqta, gave military commanders territories whose revenue maintained troops, though rebellious nayakas later weakened the centre. The city was defended by seven lines of fortification that enclosed not only buildings but farmland, and was supplied by elaborate waterworks like the Kamalapuram tank and Hiriya canal. Its layout had a sacred centre with great temples such as the Virupaksha and Vitthala, a royal centre with the mahanavami dibba, Lotus Mahal and elephant stables blending Indo-Islamic and local styles, and bustling bazaars. In 1565 the combined Deccan Sultanates defeated Vijayanagara at Talikota (Rakshasi-Tangadi) and sacked the city. The chapter also explains how archaeologists mapped and studied the site, declared a World Heritage site in 1986.