Human Memory — Class 11 Psychology

Memory refers to retaining and recalling information over time, and is conceptualised as three interrelated stages: encoding (registering information so it becomes usable), storage (retaining it over time) and retrieval (bringing it back to awareness). The information-processing approach is captured by the Stage Model of Atkinson and Shiffrin, which proposes three memory systems: sensory memory (large capacity, lasting less than a second, with iconic and echoic registers), short-term memory (small capacity of about 7 plus or minus 2 items, lasting under 30 seconds, expanded by chunking and held by maintenance rehearsal), and long-term memory (unlimited and permanent, encoded semantically through elaborative rehearsal). Baddeley's working memory adds the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and central executive. The levels-of-processing view of Craik and Lockhart holds that deeper, semantic processing leads to better retention. Long-term memory is classified into declarative (episodic and semantic) and procedural memories. Forgetting, first studied by Ebbinghaus, is rapid at first and then gradual, and is explained by trace decay, interference (proactive and retroactive) and retrieval failure due to absent or inappropriate cues. Memory can be enhanced using mnemonics such as the keyword method, method of loci, chunking, the first-letter technique and the PQRST method, along with deep processing and minimising interference.