Comprehensive Chapter Summary - The Age of Industrialisation Class 10 NCERT

Overview

• Chapter Purpose: Explores industrialisation as a story of technological progress and machines, but challenges this by examining proto-industrial phase, workers' lives, and colonial impacts in India. Images like 'Dawn of the Century' (Fig. 1, 1900) glorify machines (railway, camera, factory) as progress; 'Two Magicians' (Fig. 2, 1901) contrasts East (Aladdin, past) with West (mechanic, modernity). Key Insight: Industrialisation not always rapid or positive; involves human labour, social changes. Focus on Britain (first industrial nation) then India under colonial rule. Activity: Modern progress problems (environmental, nuclear, disease). The glorification of machines and technology is even more marked in Fig. 2, showing Aladdin and the mechanic. These images offer a triumphant account of the modern world associated with rapid technological change, innovations, machines, factories, railways, and steamships. History of industrialisation becomes a story of development, modern age as wonderful time of technological progress. Images and associations part of popular imagination; do you see rapid industrialisation as progress? Spread of railways, factories, high-rise buildings sign of society's development? How have these images developed? Relate to ideas: industrialisation always rapid technological? Glorify continuous mechanisation? What meant to people's lives? Turn to history, focusing Britain first, then India conditioned by colonial rule.
• Expanded Relevance 2025: Links to globalisation, labour rights, de-industrialisation in colonies; sustainable tech debates. Update: AI/automation parallels. With current global supply chains, understand how colonial patterns influence modern trade imbalances; environmental issues from industrial growth echo today's climate concerns.
• Exam Tip: Contrast pre-factory with factory system; use Figs. 1-28 for visuals; know Britain's pace vs India's peculiarities. Note shift from proto to factories, hand labour persistence, colonial de-industrialisation, entrepreneurs' role, small-scale predominance.
• Broader Implications: Machines displaced hand labour; seasonality affected workers; colonialism shaped uneven growth. Industrialisation meant major technological changes, factory growth, new labour force, but hand technology/small-scale remained important.

Before the Industrial Revolution

• Proto-Industrialisation: Pre-factory large-scale production for international market; merchants moved to countryside due to urban guilds' monopolies (trained crafts, controlled production/prices). Peasants/artisans supplied by merchants; supplemented shrinking income from enclosed commons. Close town-countryside link; merchant clothier system (wool to spinners, weavers, fullers, dyers); London finishing centre. Network employed 20-25 workers/stage, hundreds total. Fig. 3: Family spinning (one wheel, one spindle). In 17th/18th centuries, merchants from towns Europe began moving countryside, supplying money peasants/artisans, persuading produce international market. Expansion world trade/acquisition colonies, demand goods grew. Merchants couldn't expand towns because urban crafts/trade guilds powerful: associations producers trained craftspeople, maintained control production, regulated competition/prices, restricted entry new people. Rulers granted guilds monopoly right produce/trade specific products. Difficult new merchants set business towns, turned countryside. Countryside poor peasants/artisans began working merchants. Time open fields disappearing, commons enclosed. Cottagers/poor peasants earlier depended common lands survival (gathering firewood, berries, vegetables, hay, straw), now look alternative income. Tiny plots not provide work all household. Merchants offered advances produce, peasant households agreed. Working merchants, remain countryside, continue cultivate small plots. Income proto-industrial supplemented shrinking cultivation income, allowed fuller family labour resources. System close relationship town/countryside. Merchants towns, work countryside. Merchant clothier England purchased wool stapler, carried spinners; yarn spun taken subsequent stages weavers, fullers, dyers. Finishing London export merchant sold international market. London finishing centre. Proto-industrial system network commercial exchanges, controlled merchants, goods produced vast producers family farms, not factories. Each stage production 20-25 workers employed each merchant, each clothier controlling hundreds workers.
• Coming Up of the Factory: Earliest factories 1730s England; multiplied late 18th century. Cotton boomed: 1760 import 2.5M lbs, 1787 22M lbs. Inventions (carding, twisting, spinning, rolling) enhanced output; Richard Arkwright's cotton mill centralized processes for supervision/quality. Fig. 4: Lancashire mill (humid for spinning). Earliest factories England up 1730s, only late 18th century number multiplied. First symbol new era cotton. Production boomed late 19th century. 1760 Britain importing 2.5 million pounds raw cotton feed cotton industry. 1787 import soared 22 million pounds. Increase linked changes process production. Series inventions 18th century increased efficacy each step production process (carding, twisting spinning, rolling). Enhanced output per worker, enabling each produce more, made possible production stronger threads yarn. Richard Arkwright created cotton mill. Till time, cloth production spread countryside, carried village households. Now, costly new machines purchased, set up, maintained mill. Within mill all processes brought together one roof management. Allowed careful supervision production process, watch quality, regulation labour, difficult countryside.
• Pace of Industrial Change: Not rapid; cotton led to 1840s, then iron/steel (railways 1840s England, 1860s colonies). 1873 iron/steel export £77M vs cotton. Traditional industries (80% workforce late 19th) not displaced; small innovations in food, pottery, etc. Tech slow: expensive, breakdowns, ineffective. Steam engine (Newcomen improved by Watt 1781, Boulton manufactured) slow adoption; 321 engines early 19th, few in new industries. Typical worker: craftsperson/labourer, not machine operator. Figs. 5-7: Manchester, railway shop, spinning factory. Activity: Difference in Figs. 4/5 industrialisation; historians' focus example (personal event ignored). Most dynamic industries Britain clearly cotton metals. Growing rapid pace, cotton leading sector first phase industrialisation up 1840s. After iron steel industry led way. Expansion railways, England 1840s colonies 1860s, demand iron steel increased rapidly. 1873 Britain exporting iron steel worth £77 million, double value cotton export. Second: new industries not easily displace traditional. End 19th century, <20% total workforce employed technologically advanced industrial sectors. Textiles dynamic sector, large portion output produced not factories, outside, domestic units. Third: pace change 'traditional' industries not set steam-powered cotton or metal industries, did not remain entirely stagnant. Seemingly ordinary small innovations basis growth many non-mechanised sectors food processing, building, pottery, glass work, tanning, furniture making, production implements. Fourth: technological changes occurred slowly. Not spread dramatically industrial landscape. New technology expensive, merchants industrialists cautious using. Machines often broke down, repair costly. Not effective inventors manufacturers claimed. Consider steam engine. James Watt improved steam engine produced Newcomen, patented new engine 1781. Industrialist friend Mathew Boulton manufactured new model. Years could find no buyers. Beginning 19th century, no more 321 steam engines England. 80 cotton industries, nine wool industries, rest mining, canal works iron works. Steam engines not used other industries till much later century. Even most powerful new technology enhanced productivity labour manifold slow accepted industrialists. Historians come increasingly recognise typical worker mid-19th century not machine operator traditional craftsperson labourer.

Hand Labour and Steam Power

• Abundance of Labour: No shortage; poor peasants/vagrants to cities for low wages. Industrialists preferred hand labour (no capital for machines). Seasonal demand (gas/breweries winter, book-binding Christmas, ships winter); hand for peaks. Source A: Thorne's job search 1881 (walked, slept rough, got job). Fig. 8: People seeking work. Victorian Britain no shortage human labour. Poor peasants vagrants moved cities large numbers search jobs, waiting work. Plenty labour, wages low. Industrialists no problem labour shortage high wage costs. Not want introduce machines got rid human labour, required large capital investment. Industries demand labour seasonal. Gas works breweries especially busy cold months. Needed more workers meet peak demand. Book-binders printers, catering Christmas demand, needed extra hands December. Waterfront, winter time ships repaired spruced up. Industries production fluctuated season, industrialists usually preferred hand labour, employing workers season.
• Handmade Products: Intricate designs (500 hammers, 45 axes) required skill; machines for uniforms/mass market. Upper classes preferred handmade (refinement/class). Machine goods for colonies. America: labour shortage, mechanised; Britain: abundant hands. Activity: Merchant letter refusing machine. Range products produced only hand labour. Machines oriented producing uniforms, standardised goods mass market. Demand market often goods intricate designs specific shapes. Mid-19th-century Britain, 500 varieties hammers produced 45 kinds axes. Required human skill, not mechanical technology. Victorian Britain, upper classes – aristocrats bourgeoisie – preferred things produced hand. Handmade products symbolise refinement class. Better finished, individually produced, carefully designed. Machine-made goods export colonies. Countries labour shortage, industrialists keen using mechanical power need human labour minimised. Case 19th-century America. Britain, no problem hiring human hands.
• Life of the Workers: Abundance affected lives; jobs via networks/kin. No connections: weeks waiting, nights under bridges/Night Refuges/Casual Wards. Fig. 9: Iron works (idealised suffering nation); Fig. 10: Houseless/Hungry (workhouses humiliating, medical checks, hard labour). Abundance labour market affected lives workers. News possible jobs travelled countryside, hundreds tramped cities. Actual possibility getting job depended existing networks friendship kin relations. Had relative friend factory, more likely get job quickly. Not everyone social connections. Many job-seekers wait weeks, spending nights under bridges night shelters. Some stayed Night Refuges set private individuals; others Casual Wards maintained Poor Law authorities.
• Seasonality and Unemployment: Prolonged no-work periods; returned countryside or odd jobs. Early 19th wages rose but real value fell (Napoleonic Wars prices); income from days worked. Urban poor 10% best, 35-75% slumps (1830s). New tech hostility: Spinning Jenny (Hargreaves 1764) opposed (reduced demand). Source B: 1790 magistrate on women attacking engines. Fig. 11: Spinning Jenny (multiple spindles). Discuss: Workers' opposition from Figs. 3/7/11, Source B. Seasonality work many industries meant prolonged periods without work. After busy season over, poor streets again. Some returned countryside after winter, demand labour rural areas opened places. Most looked odd jobs, till mid-19th century difficult find. Wages increased somewhat early 19th century. Tell little welfare workers. Average figures hide variations trades fluctuations year year. Instance, prices rose sharply prolonged Napoleonic War, real value workers earned fell significantly, same wages buy fewer things. Moreover, income workers depended not wage rate alone. Critical period employment: number days work determined average daily income workers. Best times till mid-19th century, 10 per cent urban population extremely poor. Periods economic slump, 1830s, proportion unemployed went anything between 35 75 per cent different regions. Fear unemployment made workers hostile introduction new technology. Spinning Jenny introduced woollen industry, women survived hand spinning began attacking new machines. Conflict introduction jenny continued long time. After 1840s, building activity intensified cities, opening greater opportunities employment. Roads widened, new railway stations came up, railway lines extended, tunnels dug, drainage sewers laid, rivers embanked. Number workers employed transport industry doubled 1840s, doubled subsequent 30 years.

Industrialisation in the Colonies

• Age of Indian Textiles: Pre-colonial fine cottons/woollens exported; merchants/artisans controlled. East India Company shifted to control (appoint gomasthas, advances/loans tied weavers). Weavers lost bargaining; clashed with gomasthas (arrogant, punishments). Many quit, migrated, revolted (e.g., small plots). Fig. 12: Indian textile labels. Before age machine industries, silk cotton goods India dominated international market textiles. Coarser cottons produced many countries, finer varieties often came India. Armenian Persian merchants took goods Punjab Afghanistan, eastern Persia Central Asia. Bales fine textiles carried camel back via north-west frontier, through mountain passes across deserts. Vibrant sea trade operated main pre-colonial ports. Surat Gujarat coast connected India Gulf Red Sea Ports; Masulipatam Coromandel coast Hoogly Bengal trade links Southeast Asian ports. Variety Indian merchants bankers involved network export trade – financing production, carrying goods supplying exporters. Supply merchants linked port towns inland regions. Gave advances weavers, procured woven cloth weaving villages, carried supply ports. Port, big shippers export merchants brokers negotiated price bought goods supply merchants operating inland. 1750s network, controlled Indian merchants, breaking down. European companies gradually gained power – first securing variety concessions local courts, then monopoly rights trade. Resulted decline old ports Surat Hoogly local merchants operated. Exports ports fell dramatically, credit financed earlier trade began drying up, local bankers slowly went bankrupt. Last years 17th century, gross value trade passed through Surat Rs 16 million. 1740s slumped Rs 3 million. While Surat Hoogly decayed, Bombay Calcutta grew. Shift old ports new indicator growth colonial power. Trade new ports came controlled European companies, carried European ships. Many old trading houses collapsed, wanted survive operate within network shaped European trading companies. How changes affect weavers other artisans?
• What Happened to Weavers?: Post-Company monopoly, weavers slow orders, low prices, debts. 1830s-1840s competed with Manchester goods; famines 1860s killed many. Late 19th factories; some weavers survived (coarser cloth, handloom niches). Source C: Weaver poem on competition. Consolidation East India Company power 1760s not initially lead decline textile exports India. British cotton industries not yet expanded, Indian fine textiles great demand Europe. Company keen expanding textile exports India. Before establishing political power Bengal Carnatic 1760s 1770s, East India Company found difficult ensure regular supply goods export. French, Dutch, Portuguese local traders competed market secure woven cloth. Weaver supply merchants could bargain try selling produce best buyer. Letters back London, Company officials continuously complained difficulties supply high prices. Once East India Company established political power, assert monopoly right trade. Proceeded develop system management control eliminate competition, control costs, ensure regular supplies cotton silk goods. Did series steps. First: Company tried eliminate existing traders brokers connected cloth trade, establish direct control weaver. Appointed paid servant called gomastha supervise weavers, collect supplies, examine quality cloth. Second: prevented Company weavers dealing other buyers. Way doing system advances. Order placed, weavers given loans purchase raw material production. Took loans hand over cloth produced gomastha. Not take other trader. Loans flowed, demand fine textiles expanded, weavers eagerly took advances, hoping earn more. Many weavers small plots land earlier cultivated along weaving, produce took care family needs. Lease out land devote time weaving. Weaving fact required labour entire family, children women engaged different stages process. Soon, weaving villages reports clashes weavers gomasthas. Earlier supply merchants often lived weaving villages, close relationship weavers, looking needs helping crisis. New gomasthas outsiders, no long-term social link village. Acted arrogantly, marched villages sepoys peons, punished weavers delays supply – beating flogging. Weavers lost space bargain prices sell different buyers: price received Company miserably low loans accepted tied Company. Many places Carnatic Bengal, weavers deserted villages migrated, setting looms other villages family relation. Elsewhere, weavers village traders revolted, opposing Company officials. Turn 19th century, cotton weavers faced new set problems. 1772, Henry Patullo, Company official, ventured say demand Indian textiles never reduce, no other nation produced goods same quality. Beginning 19th century long decline textile exports India. 1811-12 piece-goods accounted 33 per cent India’s exports; 1850-51 no more 3 per cent. Why happen? Implications? Cotton industries developed England, industrial groups began worrying imports other countries. Pressurised government impose import duties cotton textiles Manchester goods sell Britain without competition outside. Same time industrialists persuaded East India Company sell British manufactures Indian markets. Exports British cotton goods increased dramatically early 19th century. End 18th century virtually no import cotton piece-goods India. 1850 cotton piece-goods constituted 31 per cent value Indian imports; 1870s figure 50 per cent. Cotton weavers India thus faced two problems same time: export market collapsed, local market shrank, glutted Manchester imports. Produced machines lower costs, imported cotton goods cheap weavers not easily compete. 1850s, reports weaving regions India narrated stories decline desolation. 1860s, weavers faced new problem. Not get sufficient supply raw cotton good quality. American Civil War broke out cotton supplies US cut off, Britain turned India. Raw cotton exports India increased, price raw cotton shot up. Weavers India starved supplies forced buy raw cotton exorbitant prices. Situation weaving not pay. End 19th century, weavers other craftspeople faced yet another problem. Factories India began production, flooding market machine-goods. Weaving industries possibly survive?
• Manchester Comes to India: Cotton imports rose (1811-12 11%, 1850-51 31%); duties on Indian textiles. Weavers ruined; 1880s jute mills (British-owned). Early cotton mills 1854 Bombay; by 1860s 4 mills, 94k spindles. Fig. 13: Bombay mill. 1772, Henry Patullo, Company official, ventured say demand Indian textiles never reduce, no other nation produced goods same quality. Beginning 19th century long decline textile exports India. 1811-12 piece-goods accounted 33 per cent India’s exports; 1850-51 no more 3 per cent. Why happen? Implications? Cotton industries developed England, industrial groups began worrying imports other countries. Pressurised government impose import duties cotton textiles Manchester goods sell Britain without competition outside. Same time industrialists persuaded East India Company sell British manufactures Indian markets. Exports British cotton goods increased dramatically early 19th century. End 18th century virtually no import cotton piece-goods India. 1850 cotton piece-goods constituted 31 per cent value Indian imports; 1870s figure 50 per cent. Cotton weavers India thus faced two problems same time: export market collapsed, local market shrank, glutted Manchester imports. Produced machines lower costs, imported cotton goods cheap weavers not easily compete. 1850s, reports weaving regions India narrated stories decline desolation. 1860s, weavers faced new problem. Not get sufficient supply raw cotton good quality. American Civil War broke out cotton supplies US cut off, Britain turned India. Raw cotton exports India increased, price raw cotton shot up. Weavers India starved supplies forced buy raw cotton exorbitant prices. Situation weaving not pay. End 19th century, weavers other craftspeople faced yet another problem. Factories India began production, flooding market machine-goods. Weaving industries possibly survive?

Factories Come Up

• Early Entrepreneurs: Colonial restrictions; Dwarkanath Tagore, Dinshaw Petit, Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata (Empress Mills 1886), Seth Hukumchand, Birlas succeeded. Capital from opium trade (Chinese tea). Fig. 14: Textile ad. First cotton mill Bombay 1854 went production two years later. 1862 four mills work 94,000 spindles 2,150 looms. Same time jute mills Bengal, first set 1855 another seven years later, 1862. North India, Elgin Mill started Kanpur 1860s, year later first cotton mill Ahmedabad set. 1874, first spinning weaving mill Madras began production. Who set industries? Where capital come? Who came work mills? Industries set different regions varying sorts people. Let see. History many business groups goes back trade China. Late 18th century, British India began exporting opium China took tea China England. Many Indians became junior players trade, providing finance, procuring supplies, shipping consignments. Earning trade, businessmen visions developing industrial enterprises India. Bengal, Dwarkanath Tagore made fortune China trade turned industrial investment, setting six joint-stock companies 1830s 1840s. Tagore’s enterprises sank others wider business crises 1840s, later 19th century many China traders became successful industrialists. Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata built huge industrial empires India, accumulated initial wealth partly exports China, partly raw cotton shipments England. Seth Hukumchand, Marwari businessman set first Indian jute mill Calcutta 1917, traded China. Father grandfather famous industrialist G.D. Birla. Capital accumulated other trade networks. Merchants Madras traded Burma others links Middle East East Africa. Yet other commercial groups, not directly involved external trade. Operated India, carrying goods one place another, banking money, transferring funds cities, financing traders. Opportunities investment industries opened, many set factories. Colonial control Indian trade tightened, space Indian merchants function became increasingly limited. Barred trading Europe manufactured goods, export mostly raw materials food grains – raw cotton, opium, wheat indigo – required British. Gradually edged shipping business. Till First World War, European Managing Agencies fact controlled large sector Indian industries. Three biggest Bird Heiglers & Co., Andrew Yule, Jardine Skinner & Co. Agencies mobilised capital, set joint-stock companies managed. Most instances Indian financiers provided capital European Agencies made investment business decisions. European merchant-industrialists own chambers commerce Indian businessmen not allowed join.
• Where Did Workers Come From?: Mills needed workers; jobbers recruited/controlled (power, gifts/favours). Workers from villages, maintained ties (returned for harvests). Source D: Jobber power. Factories needed workers. Expansion factories, demand increased. 1901, 584,000 workers Indian factories. 1946 number over 2,436,000. Where workers come? Industrial regions workers came districts around. Peasants artisans found no work village went industrial centres search work. Over 50 per cent workers Bombay cotton industries 1911 came neighbouring district Ratnagiri, mills Kanpur got textile hands villages within district Kanpur. Often millworkers moved village city, returning village homes harvests festivals. Time, news employment spread, workers travelled great distances hope work mills. United Provinces, instance, went work textile mills Bombay jute mills Calcutta. Getting jobs always difficult, even mills multiplied demand workers increased. Numbers seeking work always more jobs available. Entry mills restricted. Industrialists usually employed jobber get new recruits. Often jobber old trusted worker. Got people village, ensured jobs, helped settle city, provided money times crisis. Jobber therefore became person authority power. Began demanding money gifts favour controlling lives workers. Number factory workers increased time. However, small proportion total industrial workforce.

The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth

• European Managing Agencies: Controlled capital, preferred tea/jute/mining; Chinese/Indian yarn to China. WW1 boom (1914-18 army needs); new factories, Swadeshi protection. 1920s-1930s protection; cotton growth. Industrialists organised (AIOCI 1920, FICCI 1927); supported Congress for protection. Fig. 15: Gripe Water ad. European Managing Agencies, dominated industrial production India, interested certain kinds products. Established tea coffee plantations, acquiring land cheap rates colonial government; invested mining, indigo jute. Most products required primarily export trade not sale India. Indian businessmen began setting industries late 19th century, avoided competing Manchester goods Indian market. Since yarn not important part British imports India, early cotton mills India produced coarse cotton yarn (thread) rather fabric. Yarn produced Indian spinning mills used handloom weavers India exported China. First decade 20th century series changes affected pattern industrialisation. Swadeshi movement gathered momentum, nationalists mobilised people boycott foreign cloth. Industrial groups organised protect collective interests, pressurising government increase tariff protection grant concessions. 1906, export Indian yarn China declined produce Chinese Japanese mills flooded Chinese market. Industrialists India began shifting yarn cloth production. Cotton piece-goods production India doubled 1900 1912. Till First World War, industrial growth slow. War created dramatically new situation. British mills busy war production meet needs army, Manchester imports India declined. Suddenly, Indian mills vast home market supply. War prolonged, Indian factories called supply war needs: jute bags, cloth army uniforms, tents leather boots, horse mule saddles host items. New factories set old ones ran multiple shifts. Many new workers employed everyone made work longer hours. War years industrial production boomed. After war, Manchester never recapture old position Indian market. Unable modernise compete US, Germany Japan, economy Britain crumbled war. Cotton production collapsed exports cotton cloth Britain fell dramatically. Colonies, local industrialists gradually consolidated position, substituting foreign manufactures capturing home market.

Market for Goods

• Advertisements: Labels, calendars, newspapers; figures like gods (trust), nationalists (Swadeshi). Manchester labels 'Made in Manchester'; Indians used imperialism images. Figs. 16-18: Ads. British manufacturers attempted take over Indian market, Indian weavers craftsmen, traders industrialists resisted colonial controls, demanded tariff protection, created spaces, extend market produce. New products produced people persuaded buy. Feel like using product. Done? One way new consumers created advertisements. Advertisements make products appear desirable necessary. Try shape minds people create new needs. Today live world advertisements surround. Appear newspapers, magazines, hoardings, street walls, television screens. Look back history find beginning industrial age, advertisements played part expanding markets products, shaping new consumer culture. Manchester industrialists began selling cloth India, put labels cloth bundles. Label needed make place manufacture name company familiar buyer. Label mark quality. Buyers saw ‘MADE IN MANCHESTER’ written bold label, expected feel confident buying cloth. Labels not only carry words texts. Carried images often beautifully illustrated. Look old labels, idea mind manufacturers, calculations, way appealed people. Images Indian gods goddesses regularly appeared labels. Association gods gave divine approval goods sold. Imprinted image Krishna Saraswati intended make manufacture foreign land appear somewhat familiar Indian people. Late 19th century, manufacturers printing calendars popularise products. Unlike newspapers magazines, calendars used even people not read. Hung tea shops poor people’s homes much offices middle-class apartments. Hung calendars see advertisements, day day, year. Calendars, see figures gods used sell new products. Like images gods, figures important personages, emperors nawabs, adorned advertisement calendars. Message often seemed say: respect royal figure, respect product; product used kings, produced under royal command, quality not questioned. Indian manufacturers advertised nationalist message clear loud. Care nation buy products Indians produce. Advertisements became vehicle nationalist message swadeshi. Clearly, age industries meant major technological changes, growth factories, making new industrial labour force. However, hand technology small-scale production remained important part industrial landscape. Look Figs. 1 2. Would now say images project?

Key Themes

• Technological vs Human: Glorification vs reality. Machines displaced hand labour but persistence small-scale.
• Britain vs India: Rapid vs conditioned by colonialism. De-industrialisation, entrepreneurs overcame restrictions.
• Workers' Struggles: Unemployment, opposition to machines. Jobbers power, village ties maintained.
• Critical Thinking: Why slow change? Colonial de-industrialisation impacts. How ads shaped consumer culture.

Exercises Summary

• Focus: Expanded to 60 Q&A from full PDF: 20 short (2M), 20 medium (4M), 20 long (8M) based on NCERT exercises + similar. Including write brief, discuss, project.
• Project Idea: Timeline of inventions; map British/Indian industries. Select industry region, history, technology change, workers source, advertising/marketing, views employers/workers.

Important Dates - Industrial Milestones

Key timelines from chapter & history; for inventions/changes. Expanded with colonial dates, factories, wars.

Exam Tip: Link to Britain's pace/India's growth. Use for timelines in answers.

Key Definitions - Industrial Glossary

Essential terms; flashcards-ready. Expanded with terms from full chapter.

Revision Tip: Match terms to processes/figures. Use for short answers.

Questions & Answers - CBSE Class 10 (60 from NCERT PDF)

20 Short (2M), 20 Medium (4M), 20 Long (8M) based on full PDF exercises/content.

Short Questions (2 Marks Each) - 20 Total

Medium Questions (4 Marks Each) - 20 Total

Long Questions (8 Marks Each) - 20 Total

Long Questions (8 Marks Each) - 20 Total (Expanded)

Practice Tip: 2M: 2min; 4M: 5min; 8M: 12min; use PDF figs/sources/maps.

Key Quotes - Industrial Insights

Memorable lines for essays. Expanded with more sources.

Usage: Intro for long answers. Link to themes.

Textbook Activities - Hands-On Learning

NCERT tasks expanded with full chapter.

Teacher Note: Use figs/maps for practicals; discuss full implications.

Historical Indicators - Key Metrics

Indicator	Value	Significance
Cotton Imports	1760: 2.5M lbs; 1787: 22M	Boom leading sector. Expanded: Linked inventions.
Steam Engines	Early 19th: 321	Slow adoption. Expanded: 80 cotton, 9 wool.
Workforce Advanced	End 19th: <20%	Traditional dominance. Expanded: Textiles domestic.
Unemployment Slumps	1830s: 35-75%	Economic impacts. Expanded: Urban poor 10% best.
Piece-Goods Export	1811-12: 33%; 1850-51: 3%	De-industrialisation. Expanded: Manchester rise.
Cotton Imports India	1850: 31%; 1870s: 50%	Market glut. Expanded: Cheap machine goods.
Factory Workers	1901: 584k; 1946: 2.436M	Growth. Expanded: Small proportion total.
Registered Factories	1911: 5%; 1931: 10%	Small-scale predominate. Expanded: Workshops household.
Fly Shuttle	1941: >35%	Handicrafts innovation. Expanded: 70-80% some regions.
Handloom Production	1900-1940: Trebled	Expansion. Expanded: Coarse/finer/specialised.

Mnemonic: P-F for Proto, Factory; add C-M for Colonies, Market.

Causes of Industrial Change

• Guilds/Enclosures: Pushed to countryside. Expanded: Monopolies/restricted entry; commons loss poor peasants accept advances.
• Inventions: Jenny, steam, mill. Expanded: Carding/twisting/spinning/rolling efficacy; fly shuttle handlooms.
• Markets/Colonies: Demand growth. Expanded: International textiles; colonial raw exports, manufactured imports.
• Labour Abundance: Hand preference. Expanded: Low wages, seasonal flexible, intricate skill.
• Colonial Power: Monopoly, gomasthas, advances. Expanded: De-industrialisation, weavers ruined.
• War: WW1 boom. Expanded: British busy, Indian supply home/war needs.
• Nationalism: Swadeshi boycott, tariff. Expanded: Industrial groups pressure concessions.
• Innovations: Small helped compete. Expanded: Fly shuttle productivity.

Figure Tip: Link to 1-28; e.g., Fig. 13 Bombay mill colonial factories.

Industrial Measures in Britain/India

• Supervision: Mills centralized. Expanded: Quality/labour regulation; gomasthas weavers.
• Protection: India tariffs 1920s. Expanded: Swadeshi pressure concessions 1906.
• Networks: Jobbers/gomasthas. Expanded: Advances tie; jobbers money/gifts control.
• Ads: Labels/calendars market. Expanded: Gods/divine, personages royal, nationalist swadeshi.
• Monopoly: Company eliminate traders. Expanded: Direct control, prevent other buyers.
• Innovation Adoption: Fly shuttle handlooms. Expanded: Increase productivity compete mills.
• Capital Mobilisation: Agencies joint-stock. Expanded: Indian capital, European decisions.
• Organisation: AIOCI/FICCI protect interests. Expanded: Support Congress protection.

Expansion: Colonial restrictions overcome entrepreneurs trade networks/opium.

Quick Revision - Industrial Flashcards & Mnemonics

Revision Hack: Draw timeline inventions/changes; mnemonic for sectors: C for Cotton First, I for Iron Later; add D for De-industrialisation; review figs/sources daily; pair quotes with events; map trade links/ industries locations.