Pastoralists in the Modern World
Chapter 5: History - Complete Study Guide
Comprehensive Chapter Summary
Introduction
- Pastoralists are nomadic herders who move with their animals (goats, sheep, camels, cattle) in search of pastures, unlike settled farmers or industrial workers often covered in history texts.
- Chapter explores pastoralism in India and Africa, colonial impacts, and adaptations to modern pressures.
- Pastoralism sustains livelihoods through seasonal movements, preventing overuse of land and allowing regeneration.
- Nomads rarely featured in textbooks; their lives matter in understanding diverse economies.
- Focus: Cyclical movements, colonial restrictions, coping strategies.
Fig.1 – Sheep grazing on Bugyals
- Vast high-altitude pastures in Garhwal above 12,000 ft, lush with grasses and flowers post-monsoon; under snow in winter, revive in April.
1 Pastoral Nomads and their Movements
1.1 In the Mountains
- Gujjar Bakarwals (J&K): Great herders of goats/sheep; 19th-century migrants; winter in Siwalik low hills (dry scrub forests); April north to Kashmir valley via Pir Panjal passes in kafilas; summer lush grasses; September return.
- Gaddi shepherds (HP): Similar cycle; winter Siwalik scrub; April to Lahaul-Spiti high meadows; en route stop for harvest/sowing winter crop; descend to Siwalik by September.
- Gujjar cattle herders (Garhwal-Kumaon): Winter bhabar dry forests; summer bugyals; 19th-century Jammu migrants seeking pastures.
- Other Himalayan groups: Bhotiyas, Sherpas, Kinnauris; adjust to seasonal changes; move when pastures exhaust/unusable; prevents overuse, allows recovery.
- Key Features: Cyclical summer-winter movements; effective pasture use; continuous mobility for regeneration.
Source A: G.C. Barnes on Gujjars (1850s)
- Pastoral tribe in Kangra hills; men graze herds in forests (weeks out); women market dairy daily; hot weather upper ranges for rich grass, temperate climate free of flies.
Fig.2 – Gujjar Mandap
- Bamboo-grass shelters at 10,000-11,000 ft for ghee-making; now transport milk by vehicles; buffaloes can't climb higher.
Figs.3-4 – Gaddi Shearing
- September descent from dhars; halt for sheep bathing/cleaning/shearing in Uhl valley near Palampur.
New Words
- Bhabar: Dry forested area below foothills.
- Bugyal: Vast high mountain meadows.
1.2 On the Plateaus, Plains and Deserts
- Dhangars (Maharashtra): 467,000 early 20th C; shepherds, blanket weavers, buffalo herders; monsoon central semi-arid plateau (thorny scrub, bajra grazing); October west to Konkan (high rain, rich soil); flocks manure post-kharif fields, fed stubble; exchange rice; return pre-monsoon (sheep can't tolerate wet).
- Gollas, Kurumas, Kurubas (Karnataka-AP): Dry plateau stone/grass; Gollas herd cattle; others sheep/goats, weave blankets; near woods, small cultivation, petty trades; dry season coasts (buffaloes in swamps); monsoon plateau.
- Banjaras: Graziers in UP, Punjab, Rajasthan, MP, Maharashtra; long-distance for pasture; sell plough cattle/goods, buy grain/fodder.
- Source B: Buchanan on Gollas (1807): Families in small villages near woods; cultivate little, keep cattle; 7-8 young men/family; some herd in woods, others cultivate/supply firewood/straw/thatch/dairy to towns.
- Raikas (Rajasthan deserts): Meagre rain; combine cultivation-pastoralism; monsoon home villages (pasture available); October migrate for water/pasture; return next monsoon; Maru (desert) Raikas herd camels, others sheep/goats.
- Activity: Sources A/B: Men herd/graze (forest/outdoor); women market dairy/cultivate/supply towns; edge-of-forest for wood access, pasture near woods.
- Overall: Sustained by judging stay duration, water/pasture locations, timing, farmer relations (manure/stubble); combined cultivation, trade, herding.
Figs.5-6 – Raika Camels & Settlement
- Graze thorny Thar bushes over vast areas; dhandi settlements near Jaisalmer.
Figs.7-8 – Camel Fairs (Balotra, Pushkar)
- Raikas sell/buy/train camels; display expertise; Gujarat horses sold.
Fig.9 – Maru Raika Genealogist
- Oral traditions preserve community history/identity.
Fig.10 – Maldhari Herders
- Moving in Rann of Kutch for pastures; villages there.
2 Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life
- Overview: Grazing shrank, movements regulated, revenue increased, stock declined, trades affected.
- Waste Land Rules (mid-19th C): Uncultivated 'waste' lands to individuals for settlement/concessions; actually pastoral tracts; expanded cultivation for revenue/jute/cotton/wheat; reduced pastures.
- Forest Acts (mid-19th C): Reserved forests (valuable timber like deodar/sal, no access); Protected (limited customary rights, restricted movements); officials: grazing tramples saplings/shoots, prevents growth.
- Source C: H.S. Gibson (1913): Grazing forests can't yield timber/fuel (main produce).
- Activity: Forester: Closure boosts timber; Pastoralist: Destroys forage, livelihoods.
- Criminal Tribes Act (1871): Nomads/craftsmen/traders distrusted as mobile/criminal; classified as Criminal Tribes by nature/birth; confined to notified villages, no movement without permit; village police watch.
- Grazing Tax: Mid-19th C per animal; rose rapidly; 1850s-80s auctioned to contractors (extract max for profit); 1880s direct with passes (enter tract, pay, record heads).
- Source D: Royal Commission (1928): Pastures down due to cultivation/irrigation/govt use (defence/industry/farms); hard to raise herds; earnings down, stock quality deteriorated, diets fallen, indebtedness up.
- Activity (1890s nomad): Feel imprisoned/angry; petition: Unjust criminal label ignores traditions, blocks movement/livelihoods, causes poverty/death.
New Words
- Customary rights: Traditional access by habit.
2.1 How Did these Changes Affect the Lives of Pastoralists?
- Pastures taken for plough/reserved; decline in area.
- Existing stock overgrazed remaining lands; quality deteriorated.
- Nomadic movements restricted; no time for vegetation recovery; forage shortage.
- Underfed animals died in scarcities/famines.
- Fig.11: Map of Indian pastoral communities (Gujjars, Gaddis, etc.; many others exist).
2.2 How Did the Pastoralists Cope with these Changes?
- Reduced cattle numbers for limited pastures.
- New pastures when old inaccessible (Raikas: Post-1947 no Sindh/Indus; now Haryana fields post-harvest for manure).
- Richer: Bought land, settled as peasants; extensive trading.
- Poorer: Borrowed from moneylenders, lost stock, became field/small town laborers.
- Numbers expanded recently; changed directions, reduced herds, combined pastoral/other income; adapted to modern world.
- Ecologists: Pastoralism viable in dry/mountains.
- Global: New laws/settlements forced alterations worldwide.
3 Pastoralism in Africa
- 22M Africans pastoral-dependent (Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran, Turkana); semi-arid/deserts; raise cattle/camels/goats/sheep/donkeys; sell milk/meat/skin/wool; trade/transport, combine agriculture/odd jobs.
- Colonial/post-colonial changes dramatic; focus Maasai (300K Kenya, 150K Tanzania).
Fig.12 – Maasai Land with Kilimanjaro
- Dependent on maize/rice/potatoes/cabbage; traditionally farming 'crime against nature' (unsuitable for grazing).
Fig.13 – Pastoral Communities in Africa
- Inset: Maasai southern Kenya/northern Tanzania.
- On Tanganyika: British post-WWI (1919); independence 1961; Tanzania 1964 with Zanzibar.
3.1 Where have the Grazing Lands Gone?
- Pre-colonial: Vast from north Kenya to northern Tanzania steppes.
- 1885: Split by British Kenya-German Tanganyika boundary; lost 60% to white settlements; confined to arid south Kenya/north Tanzania (uncertain rain, poor pastures).
- British encouraged peasant cultivation; pastures to fields; Maasai dominance over farmers reversed.
- Game reserves: Maasai Mara/Samburu (Kenya), Serengeti (Tanzania, 14,760 km Maasai land); no grazing/hunting.
- Fig.14: Drought near Amboseli; tourism $3.5M but locals barred from water/irrigation.
- Similar: Namibia Kaokoland herders blocked from Ovamboland trade/movement by boundaries.
- Source E (1949 Kaokoland): Borders imprison, no meat/skins south; lived/moved there long, now closed.
- Fig.15: Maasai 'My People'; milk/meat subsistence; drought kills in hot semi-arid equatorial land.
- Pressure on small lands; continuous grazing deteriorates quality; persistent fodder issues.
3.2 The Borders are Closed
- 19th C: Free vast movements for exhausted pastures.
- Late 19th C: Colonial mobility restrictions; confined to reserves (boundaries as limits); special permits for out-movement (harassment/punishment).
- Barred from white markets/trade; seen as dangerous/savage (minimize contact, but needed black labor for mines/roads).
- Source F (1937 Magistrate): Restrict native passes unless exceptional; check/ limit entry to territory.
- Sudden changes hurt pastoral/trading; restrictions didn't fully stop trade but added hurdles.
3.3 When Pastures Dry
- Droughts universal; nomadism moves to forage areas for survival.
- Colonial: Fixed reserves prohibited shifts; cut from best lands; semi-arid prone to droughts.
- 1930: 720K cattle, 820K sheep, 171K donkeys; 1933-34 drought: Over half cattle died (no movement).
- Shrinking lands intensified bad years; steady animal stock decline.
3.4 Not All were Equally Affected
- Pre-colonial: Elders (ruling councils, disputes); Warriors (young, protect, cattle raids for wealth/power/manliness).
- Colonial: Appointed sub-group chiefs responsible for tribe; restricted raiding/warfare; eroded elder/warrior authority.
- Chiefs: Accumulated wealth (income buy animals/land/goods); lent money for taxes; town trade (wives/children village herding); survived war/drought via diverse income.
- Poor: No resources for bad times; lost everything in war/famine; urban work (charcoal, odd jobs, construction).
- Changes: Age difference (elders/warriors) disturbed (not broken); new wealthy-poor distinction.
- Figs.16-17: Warriors: Red shukas, beaded jewelry, spears, red-tinted plaits; face east for sun; security/herding; elaborate 4-month ritual transition (boys raid/dance).
Conclusion
- Pastoral communities worldwide affected variably by modern changes: Laws/borders restrict movements; pastures disappear/deteriorate via overgrazing; droughts cause cattle deaths/crises.
- Adapt: Change paths, reduce herds, enter new areas politically; demand forest/water rights, relief/subsidies.
- Not past relics; nomadism suits hilly/dry regions (environmentalists/economists recognize).
- Fig.18: Raika shepherd on Jaipur highway amid heavy traffic (new migration challenges).
Questions
- 1. Explain why nomadic tribes move; environmental advantages.
- 2. Discuss colonial laws' impacts on pastoralists.
- 3. Reasons Maasai lost grazing lands.
- 4. Similar changes for Indian pastoralists and Maasai.
Activities
- 1950 Raika herder to granddaughter: Post-Independence freedoms, new markets, but ongoing land pressures.
- Article: 'Warriors of the Savannah: Pre-Colonial Maasai Life' – Elders/warriors, raids, vast lands.
- Research: Communities in Figs.11/13 (e.g., Banjaras trade, Turkana droughts).
