Full Chapter Summary & Detailed Notes - Methods of Enquiry in Psychology Class 11 NCERT

Overview & Key Concepts

• Chapter Goal: Understand goals/nature of enquiry, data types, methods, analysis, limitations, ethics. Exam Focus: Goals (description/prediction/explanation/control/application), steps scientific research, paradigms (scientific/interpretive), data (demographic/physical/physiological/psychological), methods (observational/experimental/correlational/survey/testing/case study), analysis (quantitative/qualitative), limitations, ethics. 2025 Updates: Emphasis on mixed methods, data privacy, AI in analysis. Fun Fact: First psych lab Wundt 1879 but methods evolve. Core Idea: Psychology scientific; formal/systematic observations. Real-World: Study habits, aggression causes. Ties: To Chapter 1 on psych as discipline. Expanded: Methods diverse because phenomena varied; single method not suffice. Objectivity key; interpretive meanings/contexts. Data context-tied; not independent. Ethical consent/confidentiality crucial.
• Wider Scope: Enquiry objective/systematic/testable; description to application.
• Expanded Content: Scientific increases efficiency/new theories; interpretive complex/variable behaviour. Data categories/crude measurements; qualitative verbal/reports.

Introduction

You have read in the first chapter that psychology is the study of experiences, behaviours, and mental processes. You may now be curious to know how psychologists study these phenomena. In other words, what methods are used to study behaviour and mental processes? Like all scientists, psychologists seek to describe, predict, explain and control what they study. For this, psychologists rely on formal, systematic observations to address their questions. It is the methodology that makes psychology a scientific endeavour. Psychologists use a variety of research methods because questions about human behaviour are numerous and all of them cannot be studied by a single method. Methods such as observation, experimental, correlational research, survey, psychological testing and case study are more frequently used to study the problems of psychology. This chapter will familiarise you with the goals of psychological enquiry, the nature of information or data that we collect in psychological studies, the diverse range of methodological devices available for the study of psychology, and some important issues related to psychological studies. Expanded: Psychology studies diverse problems; methods vary. Scientific method key; objectivity two observers same conclusion. Systematic steps: Conceptualise, collect, conclude, revise. Diverse problems self/others/group/organisational.

• Examples: Study habits; aggression; forgetting.
• Point: Methods make scientific; varied phenomena.
• Expanded: Formal observations; describe/predict/explain/control.

Extended: Questions numerous; single method not. Familiarise goals/nature/data/methods/issues.

Goals of Psychological Enquiry

Like any scientific research, psychological enquiry has the following goals: description, prediction, explanation, and control of behaviour, and application of knowledge so generated, in an objective manner. Let us try to understand the meaning of these terms. Description : In a psychological study, we attempt to describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as accurately as possible. This helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour from other behaviours. For example, the researcher may be interested in observing study habits among students. Study habits may consist of diverse range of behaviours, such as attending all your classes regularly, submitting assignments on time, planning your study schedule, studying according to the set schedule, revising your work on a daily basis etc. Within a particular category there may be further minute descriptions. The researcher needs to describe her/his meaning of study habits. The description requires recording of a particular behaviour which helps in its proper understanding. Prediction : The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour. If you are able to understand and describe the behaviour accurately, you come to know the relationship of a particular behaviour with other types of behaviours, events, or phenomena. You can then forecast that under certain conditions this particular behaviour may occur within a certain margin of error. For example, on the basis of study, a researcher is able to establish a positive relationship between the amount of study time and achievement in different subjects. Later, if you come to know that a particular child devotes more time for study, you can predict that the child is likely to get good marks in the examination. Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the number of persons observed. Explanation : The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour. Psychologists are primarily interested in knowing the factors that make behaviour occur. Also, what are the conditions under which a particular behaviour does not occur. For example, what makes some children more attentive in the class? Why some children devote less time for study as compared to others? Thus, this goal is concerned with identifying the determinants or antecedent conditions (i.e. conditions that led to the particular behaviour) of the behaviour being studied so that cause-effect relationship between two variables (objects) or events could be established. Control : If you are able to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, you can control that behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions. Control refers to three things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it. For example, you can allow the number of hours devoted to study to be the same, or you can reduce them or there may be an increase in the study hours. The change brought about in behaviour by psychological treatment in terms of therapy in persons, is a good example of control. Application : The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the lives of people. Psychological research is conducted to solve problems in various settings. Because of these efforts the quality of life of people is a major concern of psychologists. For example, applications of yoga and meditation help to reduce stress and increase efficiency. Scientific enquiry is also conducted to develop new theories or constructs, which leads to further research. Expanded: Goals objective manner. Description accurate distinguish. Prediction forecast conditions margin error. Explanation causal determinants antecedent. Control changes antecedent happen/reduce/enhance. Application positive changes solve problems settings; new theories.

• Examples: Study habits description; study time-achievement prediction; attentive class explanation; study hours control; yoga stress application.
• Point: Description/prediction/explanation/control/application.
• Expanded: Accurate more observed; cause-effect; therapy control; quality life.

Extended: Under certain conditions occur; determinants not occur; positive changes lives.

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

Science is not so defined by what it investigates as by how it investigates. The scientific method attempts to study a particular event or phenomenon in an objective, systematic, and testable manner. The objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more persons independently study a particular event, both of them, to a great extent, should arrive at the same conclusion. For instance, if you and your friend measure the length of a table using the same measuring device, it is likely that both of you would arrive at the same conclusion about its length. The second characteristic of scientific research is that it follows systematic procedure or steps of investigation. It includes the following steps: conceptualisation of a problem, collection of data, drawing conclusions, and revising research conclusions and theory (see Fig.2.1). Let us discuss these steps in some detail. (1) Conceptualising a Problem : The process of scientific research begins when a researcher selects a theme or topic for study. Then s/he narrows down the focus and develops specific research questions or problems for the study. This is done on the basis of review of past research, observations, and personal experiences. For example, earlier you read that a researcher was interested in observing the study habits of students. For this purpose, s/he may identify different facets of study habits first, and then decide whether s/he is interested in study habits shown in the class or at home. In psychology we study a diverse range of problems related to behaviour and experiences. These problems may be related to (a) understanding our own behaviour (for example, how do I feel and behave when I am in a state of joy or grief? How do we reflect on our own experiences and behaviour? Why do we forget?); (b) understanding other individual’s behaviour (for example, Is Abhinav more intelligent than Ankur? Why is someone always not able to complete her or his work on time? Can the habit of smoking be controlled? Why do some people suffering from chronic illness not take medicines?); (c) group influences on individual behaviour (for example, why does Rahim spend more time meeting with people than doing his work?, Why does a cyclist perform better when cycling before a group of persons than when cycling alone?); (d) group behaviour (for example, why does risk-taking behaviour increase when people are in a group?), and (e) organisational level (for example, why are some organisations more successful than others? How can an employer increase the motivation of employees?). The list is long and you will learn about these various facets in subsequent chapters. If you are inquisitive, you can write down a number of problems which you may like to probe. After identification of the problem, the researcher proceeds by developing a tentative answer of the problem, which is called hypothesis. For example, based on the earlier evidence or your observation, you might develop a hypothesis ‘greater is the amount of time spent by children in viewing violence on television, higher is the degree of aggression displayed by them’. In your research, you shall now try to prove whether the statement is true or false. (2) Collecting Data : The second step in scientific research is to collect data. Data collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study. It requires taking decisions about the following four aspects: (a) participants in the study, (b) methods of data collection, (c) tools to be used in research, and (d) procedure for data collection. Depending upon the nature of the study, the researcher has to decide who would be the participants (or informants) in the study. The participants could be children, adolescents, college students, teachers, managers, clinical patients, industrial workers, or any group of individuals in whom/where the phenomenon under investigation is prevalent. The second decision is related to the use of methods of data collection, such as observation method, experimental method, correlational method, case study, etc. The researcher needs to decide about appropriate tools (for example, interview schedule, observation schedule, questionnaire, etc.) for data collection. The researcher also decides about how the tools need to be administered to collect data (i.e. individual or group). This is followed by actual collection of data. (3) Drawing Conclusions : The next step is to analyse data so collected through the use of statistical procedures to understand what the data mean. This can be achieved through graphical representations (such as preparation of pie-chart, bar -diagram, cumulative frequencies, etc.) and by the use of different statistical methods. The purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions accordingly. (4) Revising Research Conclusions : The researcher may have begun the study with a hypothesis that there exists a relationship between viewing violence on television and aggression among children. S/he has to see whether the conclusions support this hypothesis. If they do, the existing hypothesis/ theory is confirmed. If not, s/he will revise or state an alternative hypothesis/theory and again test it based on new data and draw conclusions which may be verified by future researchers. Thus, research is a continuous process. Expanded: Steps systematic; objectivity same conclusion. Conceptualise topic/questions past/observations/personal. Hypothesis tentative. Collect design participants/methods/tools/procedure. Analyse statistics/graphs verify. Revise confirm/alternative. Continuous.

• Examples: Study habits facets; hypothesis TV violence-aggression; participants students; methods observation/experimental.
• Point: Conceptualise/collect/conclude/revise.
• Expanded: Diverse problems self/others/group/organisational; decisions design.

Extended: Table length same; hypothesis test new data.

Alternative Paradigms of Research

Psychologists suggest that human behaviour can and should be studied following the methods adopted by sciences like physics, chemistry, and biology. The key assumption of this view is that human behaviour is predictable, caused by internal and external forces, and can be observed, measured, and controlled. In order to achieve these goals, the discipline of psychology, for larger part of the twentieth century, restricted itself to the study of overt behaviour, i.e. the behaviour that could be observed and measured. It did not focus on personal feelings, experiences, meanings, etc. In recent years, a different method known as interpretive has emerged. It emphasises understanding over explanation and prediction. It takes the stand that, in view of complex and variable nature of human behaviour and experience, its method of investigation should be different from the method of investigation of the physical world. This viewpoint emphasises the importance of how human beings give meaning to events and actions and interpret them as they occur in a particular context. Let us take the experiences that may occur in some unique contexts, such as persons experiencing suffering due to external factors (for example, people affected by tsunami, earthquake, cyclone) or internal factors (for instance, prolonged illness, etc.). In such types of situations, objective measurement is neither possible nor desirable. Everyone interprets reality in her/his own way based on past experiences and contexts. Therefore, we need to understand the subjective interpretation of the reality. The goal here is to explore the different aspects of human experiences and behaviour without attempting to disturb its natural flow. For example, an explorer does not know what s/ he is looking for, how to look for it, and what to expect. Rather, s/he tries to map an uncharted wilderness, with little or no prior knowledge of the area, and her/his main task is to record detailed descriptions of what is found in a particular context. Both scientific and interpretive traditions are concerned with studying behaviour and experiences of others. What about our own personal experiences and behaviour? As a student of psychology, you may ask yourself the question: why am I feeling sad? Many times you take a pledge that you will control your diet or devote more time to studies. But when it actually comes to eating or studying you forget this. You might be wondering why one does not have control over one’s behaviour. Should psychology not help you in analysing your own experiences, thought processes, and behaviour? It certainly should. The psychological enquiry does aim at understanding the self by reflecting on one’s own experiences and insights. Expanded: Scientific predictable/observed/controlled; overt behaviour. Interpretive understanding/meanings/context; complex variable. Subjective interpretation; explore without disturb. Personal self-reflection analyse own. Aim understand self.

• Examples: Overt behaviour; suffering tsunami interpretive; self why sad/reflect.
• Point: Scientific methods physics; interpretive understanding complex.
• Expanded: Predictable caused forces; meanings events/actions.

Extended: Explorer map wilderness; record descriptions. Both study others; own too.

Nature of Psychological Data

You may want to consider how psychological data are different as compared to other sciences. Psychologists collect a variety of information from different sources employing diverse methods. The information, also called data (singular = datum), relate to the individuals’ covert or overt behaviour, their subjective experiences, and mental processes. Data form an important input in psychological enquiry. They in fact approximate the reality to some extent and provide an opportunity to verify or falsify our ideas, hunches, notions, etc. It should be understood that data are not independent entities. They are located in a context, and are tied to the method and theory that govern the process of data collection. In other words, data are not independent of the physical or social context, the persons involved, and the time when the behaviour occurs. We behave differently when alone than in a group, or at home and in office. You may hesitate to talk in front of your parents and teachers but not when you are with friends. You may have also noticed that not all people behave in exactly the same manner in the same situation. The method of data collection (survey, interview, experiment, etc.) used and the characteristics of respondents (such as, individual or group, young or old, male or female, rural or urban, etc.) also influence the nature and quality of data. It is possible that when you interview a student, s/he may report behaving in a particular manner in a given situation. But when you go for actual observation you may find just the opposite of what s/he had reported. Another important feature of data is that it does not in itself speak about reality. Inferences have to be made from data. A researcher attaches meaning to the data by placing it in its proper context. In psychology, different types of data or information are collected. Some of these types are : i) Demographic Information : This information generally includes personal information like name, age, gender, birth order, number of siblings, education, occupation, marital status, number of children, locality of residence, caste, religion, parental education, occupation, and family income, etc. ii) Physical Information : This category includes information about ecological conditions (hilly/desert/forest), mode of economy, housing conditions, size of rooms, facilities available at home, in the neighbourhood, in the school, mode of transportation, etc. iii) Physiological Data : In some studies physical, physiological and psychological data are collected about height, weight, heart rate, level of fatigue, Galvanic Skin Resistance (GSR), electrical activity of the brain measured by Electro-encephalograph (EEG), blood oxygen levels, reaction time, duration of sleep, blood pressure, pattern of dream, amount of salivation, running and jumping rates (in case of animal studies), etc., are collected. iv) Psychological Information : Psychological information collected, may relate to such areas as intelligence, personality, interest, values, creativity, emotions, motivation, psychological disorders, illusions, delusions, hallucinations, perceptual judgment, thought processes, consciousness, subjective experiences, etc. The above information could be from the point of view of measurement somewhat crude. Like, in the form of categories (such as high/ low, yes/no), ranks which provide ordinal data, viz. first, second, third, fourth, etc., or scores (10, 12, 15, 18, 20, etc.) on scales. We also obtain verbal reports, observation records, personal diaries, field notes, archival data, etc. Such types of information is analysed separately using qualitative methods. You will get some idea about this later in this chapter. Expanded: Data variety sources/methods; covert/overt/subjective/mental. Approximate reality; verify ideas. Not independent context/method/theory. Differ alone/group/home/office. Method/respondents influence. Report vs actual differ. Inferences meaning context. Types demographic/physical/physiological/psychological. Measurement categories/ranks/scores; qualitative verbal/records/diaries/notes/archival.

• Examples: Demographic age/gender; physical housing; physiological heart rate/EEG; psychological intelligence/personality.
• Point: Data context-tied; inferences made.
• Expanded: Approximate verify/falsify; behave differ situations.

Extended: Categories high/low; ranks ordinal; scores scales; qualitative analysed separate.

Some Important Methods in Psychology

In the previous section you read about wide variety of data that we collect in psychological studies. All these varieties of data cannot be collected through a single method of enquiry. Psychologists use a variety of methods like Observation, Experimental, Correlational, Survey, Psychological Testing, and Case Study to collect data. The aim of this section is to guide you to select the methods which may be appropriate for different research purposes. For example: • You can observe the behaviour of spectators watching a football match. • You can conduct an experiment to see if children taking an examination do better in the classroom in which they had studied the subject or in the examination hall (cause-effect relationship). • You can correlate intelligence with, say, self- esteem (for prediction purposes). • You can survey students’ attitude towards privatisation of education. • You can use psychological tests to find out individual differences. • You can conduct a case study on the development of language in a child. The main characteristics of these methods are described in the following sections. Observational Method Observation is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an effective method of describing behaviour. In our daily life, we remain busy with observing numerous things throughout the day. Many times, we do not take notice of what we are seeing or what we have seen. We see but we do not observe. We remain aware of only a few things that we see daily. Have you experienced such a thing? You may also have experienced that if you carefully observe a person or event for some time, you come to know many interesting things about the person or the event. A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation in many respects. These are : (a) Selection : Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter. Rather, they select a particular behaviour for observation. For example, you may be interested to know how children studying in Class XI spend their time in school. Two things are possible at this stage. As a researcher, you might think that you have a fairly good idea about what happens in school. You might prepare a list of activities and go to the school with a view to finding out their occurrences. Alternatively, you might think that you do not know what happens in the school and, by your observation you would like to discover it. (b) Recording : While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means, such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking notes describing each activity in greater detail using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording, etc. (c) Analysis of Data : After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it. It is important to know that making good observations is a skill. A good observer knows what s/he is looking for, whom s/he wants to observe, when and where the observation needs to be made, in what form the observation will be recorded, and what methods will be used to analyse the observed behaviour. Types of Observation Observation can be of the following types : (a) Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation : When observations are done in a natural or real-life settings (in the above example, it was a school in which observation was made), it is called naturalistic observation. In this case the observer makes no effort to control or manipulate the situation for making an observation. This type of observation is conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day care centers, etc. However, many a times you might need to control certain factors that determine behaviour as they are not the focus of your study. For this reason, many of the studies in psychology are conducted in the laboratory. For example, if you read Box 2.1, you will come to know that smoke could only be introduced in a controlled laboratory situation. This type of observation, called Controlled Laboratory Observation, actually, is obtained in laboratory experiments. (b) Non-Participant vs Participant Observation : Observation can be done in two ways. One, you may decide to observe the person or event from a distance. Two, the observer may become part of the group being observed. In the first case, the person being observed may not be aware that s/he is being observed. For example, you want to observe the pattern of interaction between teachers and students in a particular class. There are many ways of achieving this goal. You can install a video camera to record the classroom activities, which you can see later and analyse. Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a corner of the class without interfering or participating in their everyday activities. This type of observation is called non-participant observation. The danger in this type of set- up is that the very fact that someone is sitting in the classroom may bring a change in the behaviour of students. In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the group they are studying. This involves making oneself fit with them. For this purpose, the researcher learns their language, customs and traditions, and works with them, eats with them, and lives with them for a longer duration. The observer keeps very objective and value-neutral attitude for the purpose of accurate data collection. Experimental Method The experimental method is the most popular one for studying cause and effect relationship between two variables. It is a method of observation under controlled conditions. The main feature of experimental method is that the experimenter can manipulate one variable (independent variable) and measure its effect on another variable (dependent variable). The variable which is manipulated or altered is called independent variable. The variable on which the effect of manipulated variable is studied is called dependent variable. The experimenter tries to control all other variables (extraneous variables) which are likely to affect the dependent variable. For example, if we want to study the effect of intelligence on problem solving, intelligence is the independent variable, problem solving is the dependent variable, and all other variables like motivation, time, etc. are extraneous variables which need to be controlled. In conducting an experiment, the experimenter first develops a hypothesis or a tentative statement about the relationship between two variables. Then s/he selects appropriate design for the experiment such as single group design or two group design. Then the experimenter selects appropriate participants or subjects for the experiment. The experimenter also selects appropriate tools or apparatus for the experiment. Then s/he follows a standard procedure to conduct the experiment. Finally, s/he analyses the data and draws conclusions. An example of an experiment is given in Box 2.1. Correlational Research In psychological research, we are often interested in knowing the relationship between two variables. For example, is there any relationship between intelligence and achievement? Is there any relationship between anxiety and aptitude? To examine the relationship between such variables, we make use of correlational method. In correlational research, we do not manipulate any variable. We simply measure the two variables and use statistical techniques to find out the relationship between them. The strength and direction of relationship is expressed by a numerical value known as correlation coefficient. It ranges from -1.00 to +1.00. If the correlation is +1.00, it is perfect positive correlation, if it is -1.00, it is perfect negative correlation, and if it is 0.00, it is zero correlation. Positive correlation means that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases. Negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. Zero correlation means that there is no relationship between the two variables. Survey Research Survey research is used to collect information about the opinions, attitudes, perceptions, interests, etc. of a large number of people. The information is collected through questionnaires, interviews, or opinionnaires. The main advantage of survey research is that we can collect data from a large number of people in a short period of time. However, the respondents may not give accurate information due to various reasons. An example of survey method is given in Box 2.2. Psychological Testing Psychological tests are standardised tools used to measure individual differences in various psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, personality, interests, values, etc. The tests are developed following standard procedures of test construction such as item analysis, reliability, validity, and norms. The tests are administered and scored according to the manual. The scores are interpreted in terms of norms. Case Study Case study is an in-depth study of a single individual or a small group. The information is collected through interviews, observations, documents, etc. It is useful for studying rare phenomena or for generating hypotheses. However, it is time-consuming and subject to bias. Expanded: Methods varied data; select appropriate purpose. Observational describe; selection/recording/analysis. Types naturalistic/controlled; non-participant/participant. Experimental cause-effect; independent/dependent/extraneous. Hypothesis/design/participants/tools/procedure/analysis. Correlational relationship; coefficient +1 to -1. Survey opinions large; questionnaires/interviews. Testing standardised differences; reliability/validity/norms. Case in-depth single; interviews/observations.

• Examples: Spectators observation; exam room experiment; intelligence-self-esteem correlation; attitude survey; differences testing; language child case.
• Point: Observation/experimental/correlational/survey/testing/case.
• Expanded: Skill observe; controlled lab; participant part group; correlation not causation; survey large short; testing standard; case rare/hypotheses.

Extended: Good observer knows what/whom/when/where/how record/analyse; danger change behaviour; example smoke lab.

Analysis of Data

The next step is to analyse data so collected through the use of statistical procedures to understand what the data mean. This can be achieved through graphical representations (such as preparation of pie-chart, bar -diagram, cumulative frequencies, etc.) and by the use of different statistical methods. The purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions accordingly. Quantitative Method Quantitative methods are used to analyse numerical data. They include descriptive statistics such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, etc. and inferential statistics such as t-test, ANOVA, correlation, regression, etc. Qualitative Method Qualitative methods are used to analyse non-numerical data such as verbal reports, observations, etc. They include content analysis, thematic analysis, narrative analysis, etc. Expanded: Analyse understand mean; graphical pie/bar/cumulative; statistical descriptive/inferential. Quantitative numerical mean/SD/t-test; qualitative verbal content/thematic.

• Examples: Pie-chart frequencies; mean average; content themes interviews.
• Point: Quantitative numerical; qualitative non-numerical.
• Expanded: Verify hypothesis; draw conclusions.

Extended: Descriptive summarise; inferential generalise.

Limitations of Psychological Enquiry

Psychological enquiry has some limitations. One, lack of true zero point in psychological measurement. Two, relative nature of psychological interpretations. Three, subjective interpretation of qualitative data. Four, variations in behaviour due to situational factors. Five, difficulty in establishing cause-effect relationships in naturalistic observation. Expanded: No absolute zero; interpretations relative/subjective; behaviour varies situations; cause-effect difficult natural.

• Examples: Intelligence no zero; data meaning context; behave differ alone/group.
• Point: Measurement zero; interpretations relative/subjective; variations; cause-effect.
• Expanded: Ethical issues too.

Extended: Increase efficiency/theories but limitations.

Ethical Issues

Ethical issues in psychological research include voluntary participation, informed consent, debriefing, sharing results, confidentiality, protection from harm. Researchers must follow ethical guidelines to protect participants. Expanded: Voluntary no coercion; consent aware risks; debrief explain after; share if requested; confidential identity; no physical/mental harm.

• Examples: Consent form; debrief deception; confidential data.
• Point: Voluntary/consent/debrief/share/confidential/protect.
• Expanded: Ethical committees review.

Extended: Balance knowledge gain/participant welfare.

Summary

• Psychological enquiry aims at description, prediction, explanation, control and application of behaviour in an objective manner.
• Steps in research: conceptualise problem/hypothesis, collect data (design/participants/methods/tools/procedure), analyse (graphical/statistical), revise conclusions/theory.
• Paradigms: Scientific overt/controlled; interpretive understanding/meanings/context.
• Data: Demographic/physical/physiological/psychological; context-tied; inferences.
• Methods: Observational (natural/controlled, non/participant), experimental (independent/dependent), correlational (coefficient), survey (questionnaires), testing (standardised), case (in-depth).
• Analysis: Quantitative (descriptive/inferential), qualitative (content/thematic).
• Limitations: No zero, relative/subjective, variations, cause-effect difficult.
• Ethics: Voluntary, consent, debrief, share, confidential, protect harm.

Key Themes & Tips

• Aspects: Goals, steps, paradigms, data, methods, analysis, limitations, ethics.
• Thinkers: Wundt influence; modern mixed.
• Tip: Distinguish methods; ethics importance; examples real-life.

Project & Group Ideas

• Observe and interview 10 teachers and write a report on teaching method in classroom.
• Collect data on examination stress among Class X students and prepare a report.

Key Definitions & Terms - Complete Glossary

All terms from chapter; detailed with examples, relevance. Expanded: 25+ terms with more depth.

Tip: Methods pros/cons; ethics key; data types classify. Depth: Applications. Errors: Correlation causation? No. Historical: Wundt. Interlinks: Goals methods. Advanced: Mixed methods. Real-Life: Surveys polls. Graphs: Fig 2.1. Symbols: Hypothesis. Coherent: Systematic.

Additional: Extraneous variables. Pitfalls: Bias. Common: Observation.

60+ Questions & Answers - NCERT Based (Class 11)

Part A (1 mark short), B (4 marks medium), C (8 marks long). Based on NCERT, exercises. Answer lengths: 1 mark ~2 lines, 4 marks ~5 lines, 8 marks ~10 lines.

Part A: 1 Mark Questions

Part B: 4 Marks Questions

Part C: 8 Marks Questions

Tip: Methods examples; ethics voluntary/consent; limitations relative/subjective. Relate goals methods.

Key Concepts - In-Depth Exploration

Core ideas with examples, pitfalls, interlinks. Expanded with more details.

Advanced: Mixed methods. Pitfalls: Correlation causation. Interlinks: Goals analysis. Real: Ethics practice. Depth: Paradigms. Examples: Boxes. Graphs: Fig 2.1. Errors: Single method. Tips: Compare methods; debate paradigms.

Extended: Objectivity. Pitfalls: Bias observation. Common: Hypothesis. Principles: Systematic. Advanced: Inferential stats. Coherent: Enquiry.

Introduction - Detailed Guide

Methods study phenomena; scientific formal systematic (expanded).

Tip: Link Chapter 1. Depth: Objectivity. Examples: Problems. Graphs: None. Advanced: Systematic steps.

Principles: Testable. Errors: Informal sufficient? No. Real: Research.

Extended: Diverse problems; objectivity conclusion same.

Goals of Psychological Enquiry - Detailed Guide

Description to application; examples (expanded).

Tip: Sequence goals. Depth: Objective. Examples: Behaviour. Graphs: None. Advanced: Application research.

Principles: Generated knowledge. Errors: Only description? All. Real: Problems.

Extended: Under conditions occur; determinants not occur.

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research - Detailed Guide

Objective/systematic; steps detail (expanded).

Tip: Fig 2.1 steps. Depth: Decisions design. Examples: Problems list. Graphs: Fig 2.1. Advanced: Hypothesis tentative.

Principles: Continuous. Errors: Skip analyse? No. Real: Research process.

Extended: Inquisitive probe problems; decisions four aspects.

Alternative Paradigms of Research - Detailed Guide

Scientific vs interpretive; self-reflection (expanded).

Tip: Compare paradigms. Depth: Without disturb. Examples: Explorer. Graphs: None. Advanced: Both concerned others/own.

Principles: Different methods. Errors: Scientific only? Alternative. Real: Unique contexts.

Extended: Map wilderness record; personal question psychology help.

Nature of Psychological Data - Detailed Guide

Different sciences; context-tied; types (expanded).

Tip: Types classify. Depth: Inferences. Examples: Data examples. Graphs: None. Advanced: Qualitative later.

Principles: Approximate. Errors: Independent? No. Real: Influence nature/quality.

Extended: Hesitate talk parents/friends; not same manner situation.

Some Important Methods in Psychology - Detailed Guide

Varied data single not; methods detail (expanded).

Tip: Select purpose. Depth: Characteristics. Examples: Purposes. Graphs: Boxes. Advanced: Pros/cons.

Principles: Appropriate. Errors: Single all? Varied. Real: Collect data.

Extended: See/observe differ; careful interesting; danger change.

Analysis of Data - Detailed Guide

Understand mean verify; quantitative/qualitative (expanded).

Tip: Purpose verify/conclude. Depth: Descriptive summarise inferential generalise. Examples: Stats. Graphs: Pie. Advanced: Regression.

Principles: Draw conclusions. Errors: No analyse? Must. Real: Data mean.

Extended: Cumulative frequencies; ANOVA.

Limitations of Psychological Enquiry - Detailed Guide

Challenges measurement/interpretation/variations (expanded).

Tip: Examples limitations. Depth: Ethical too. Examples: Variations. Graphs: None. Advanced: Overcome mixed.

Principles: Acknowledge. Errors: Ignore? Address. Real: Research careful.

Extended: Efficiency but limitations; ethical constraints.

Ethical Issues - Detailed Guide

Protect rights/welfare; guidelines (expanded).

Tip: List ethics. Depth: Committees review. Examples: Deception debrief. Graphs: None. Advanced: Balance gain/rights.

Principles: Participant priority. Errors: Violate trust. Real: Guidelines follow.

Extended: Ethical crucial human subjects.

Quick Revision Notes & Mnemonics

Mnemonics: Goals "DPECA" (Describe/Predict/Explain/Control/Apply). Methods "OECSTC" (Observe/Experiment/Correlate/Survey/Test/Case). Ethics "VCDSCN" (Voluntary/Consent/Debrief/Share/Confidential/No harm).

Tip: Methods pros/cons; ethics list; steps sequence.