Full Chapter Summary & Detailed Notes - Learning Class 11 NCERT
Overview & Key Concepts
- Chapter Goal: Understand nature, types, processes, determinants of learning. Exam Focus: Conditioning paradigms, key processes, disabilities, verbal/skill. 2025 Updates: Emphasis on cognitive/observational, real-life applications. Fun Fact: Pavlov dogs salivate bell. Core Idea: Learning permanent change behaviour experience. Real-World: Habits form, skills acquire. Ties: To chapters motivation, memory. Expanded: Learning preserves errors/wisdom - Whitehead. Spectrum changes experience. Relatively permanent; distinguish temporary fatigue/habituation/drugs. Inferred performance.
- Wider Scope: Simple reflexes to complex skills; S-S/S-R learning.
- Expanded Content: Methods acquisition simple/complex. Determinants time/type/intensity. Processes acquisition/extinction/reinforcement. Disabilities specific deficits.
Introduction
At birth, baby limited responses reflexes. As grows, diverse: Identify persons, use spoon, alphabets/words, drive, communicate. Due learning adapt. Chapter defines, characterises process. Methods simple complex. Phenomena occur. Determinants speed/extent including disabilities. Expanded: Capacity learn/adapt manages life/solves problems. Hard working/socially skilled/professional competent learning.
- Examples: Names objects retain; polite favours; operate gadgets.
- Point: Learning key human behaviour.
- Expanded: Short cuts goals instrumental.
Extended: Preserves errors/wisdom - Whitehead. Focus aspects.
Nature of Learning
Learning spectrum changes experience. Defined relatively permanent change behaviour/potential produced experience. Distinguish temporary drugs/fatigue. Features: Involves experience sequence; relatively permanent; inferred process. Examples: Bell rings dinner; match burn careful. Habituation not learning. Expanded: Behavioural changes fatigue/habituation/drugs temporary. Sequence psychological events pre-test/process/acquire/recall. Different performance observed/inferred.
- Examples: Noise distracts habituate; sedatives change temporary.
- Point: Experience key; permanent relatively.
- Expanded: Single/repeated experience.
Extended: Always some experience; S-S learning events.
Paradigms of Learning
Methods: Conditioning classical/operant; observational; cognitive; verbal; skill. Classical: Pavlov US-UR CS-CR. Operant: Skinner voluntary reinforcer. Observational: Bandura model. Cognitive: Insight latent. Verbal: Words associate. Skill: Practice stages. Expanded: Simple responses conditioning; complex others.
- Examples: Salivate bell; press lever food.
- Point: Acquisition simple complex.
- Expanded: S-S/S-R learning.
Extended: Differences Box 5.1.
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov digestion; dogs salivate plate. Experiment: Bell food salivate bell. US food UR salivate; CS bell CR salivate. S-S learning signal. Examples: Sweet dish saliva; balloon burst fear. Determinants: Time simultaneous/delayed/trace/backward; type appetitive/aversive; intensity CS. Delayed most effective. Expanded: Forward procedures; backward rare.
- Examples: Pickle salivate activity.
- Point: Association CS-US.
- Expanded: Appetitive slow; aversive fast.
Extended: Table 5.1 stages.
Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
Skinner voluntary operants control. Box lever press food. Response instrumental consequence. Examples: Sweets locate; polite favours; gadgets operate. Determinants: Reinforcer positive/negative; number/amount/quality; schedules continuous/partial; delayed poorer. Expanded: Negative not punishment; suppress temporary.
- Examples: Woollens avoid cold; seat belts avoid fine/injury.
- Point: Behaviour consequences.
- Expanded: Partial resistance extinction.
Extended: Fig 5.2 box.
Key Learning Processes
Acquisition/extinction/reinforcement/generalisation/discrimination/spontaneous recovery. Classical: Reflexes US; operant voluntary. CS defined classical not operant. Experimenter controls US classical; organism reinforcer operant. Terms differ; reinforcer US classical. Expanded: Box 5.1 differences.
- Examples: Acquisition trials; extinction no US.
- Point: Processes occur both.
- Expanded: S-S vs S-R.
Extended: Learned helplessness Box 5.2.
Observational Learning
Bandura model observe imitate. Attention/retention/reproduction/motivation. Examples: Children aggression TV; skills demo. Expanded: Social learning vicarious.
- Examples: Bobo doll.
- Point: No direct experience.
- Expanded: Reinforce model.
Extended: Prosocial models.
Cognitive Learning
Insight sudden solution; latent prior experience no trial. Tolman rats maze cognitive maps. Expanded: Gestalt influence.
- Examples: Kohler chimp banana.
- Point: Mental processes key.
- Expanded: Not behaviourist.
Extended: Problem solving.
Verbal Learning
Words/lists memorise. Methods serial/free recall; paired associates. Determinants meaningfulness/association. Expanded: Organisation chunking.
- Examples: Nonsense syllables.
- Point: Language based.
- Expanded: Mnemonics.
Extended: Curve forgetting.
Skill Learning
Practice stages cognitive/associative/autonomous. Feedback trial error. Expanded: Motor/perceptual/social.
- Examples: Driving/type.
- Point: Proficiency practice.
- Expanded: Plateau overcome.
Extended: Transfer skills.
Factors Facilitating Learning
Motivation/readiness/maturity/reinforcement/practice/feedback/group/individual differences. Expanded: Intelligence/personality.
- Examples: Goal directed.
- Point: Speed/extent determine.
- Expanded: Environment.
Extended: Methods active.
Learning Disabilities
Specific deficits reading/writing/math despite normal intelligence. Dyslexia/dysgraphia/dyscalculia. Causes neurological/genetic. Interventions special education. Expanded: Not mental retardation.
- Examples: Reverse letters.
- Point: Early identification.
- Expanded: Support inclusive.
Extended: ADHD comorbid.
Summary
- Learning relatively permanent change behaviour experience.
- Paradigms: Classical S-S; operant S-R; observational; cognitive; verbal; skill.
- Processes: Acquisition/extinction/generalisation/discrimination/recovery.
- Determinants: Time/type/intensity reinforcer; schedules.
- Disabilities: Specific learning deficits; interventions.
Why This Guide Stands Out
Complete: All subtopics, examples, Q&A, quiz. Psychology-focused. Free 2025.
Key Themes & Tips
- Aspects: Change permanent, experience, processes, determinants.
- Thinkers: Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura, Tolman.
- Tip: Distinguish classical/operant; examples daily; disabilities identify.
Exam Case Studies
Conditioning examples, processes explain, disabilities types.
Project & Group Ideas
- Observe learning in daily life; report conditioning instances.
- Group experiment simple conditioning; discuss determinants.
60+ Questions & Answers - NCERT Based (Class 11)
Part A (1 mark short), B (4 marks medium), C (8 marks long). Based on NCERT, exercises. Answer lengths: 1 mark ~2 lines, 4 marks ~5 lines, 8 marks ~10 lines.
Part A: 1 Mark Questions
1. Define learning.
1 Mark Answer: Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by experience.
2. What is the first feature of learning?
1 Mark Answer: Learning always involves some kinds of experience.
3. Give an example of behavioural change that is not learning.
1 Mark Answer: Changes due to fatigue, habituation, or drugs are temporary and not learning.
4. What is classical conditioning?
1 Mark Answer: Classical conditioning is learning where a neutral stimulus (CS) is associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US) to elicit a conditioned response (CR).
5. Who first investigated classical conditioning?
1 Mark Answer: Ivan P. Pavlov first investigated classical conditioning.
6. What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?
1 Mark Answer: US is a stimulus that automatically elicits an unconditioned response (UR), like food causing salivation.
7. Name one determinant of classical conditioning.
1 Mark Answer: Time relations between stimuli, such as delayed conditioning.
8. What is operant conditioning?
1 Mark Answer: Operant conditioning is learning where behaviour is shaped by its consequences, like reinforcement.
9. Who investigated operant conditioning?
1 Mark Answer: B.F. Skinner investigated operant conditioning using the Skinner Box.
10. What is positive reinforcement?
1 Mark Answer: Positive reinforcement is adding a pleasant stimulus to increase response probability, like praise.
11. What is negative reinforcement?
1 Mark Answer: Negative reinforcement is removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase response, like escaping pain.
12. Differentiate punishment from negative reinforcement.
1 Mark Answer: Punishment suppresses response; negative reinforcement increases it by removing aversive stimulus.
13. What is continuous reinforcement?
1 Mark Answer: Continuous reinforcement is reinforcing every occurrence of the response.
14. What is partial reinforcement?
1 Mark Answer: Partial reinforcement is reinforcing responses intermittently, leading to greater extinction resistance.
15. What is observational learning?
1 Mark Answer: Observational learning is acquiring behaviour by observing and imitating models.
16. What is cognitive learning?
1 Mark Answer: Cognitive learning involves mental processes like insight or latent learning without overt trials.
17. What is verbal learning?
1 Mark Answer: Verbal learning is acquiring knowledge through words, like memorising lists.
18. Name stages of skill learning.
1 Mark Answer: Stages of skill learning are cognitive, associative, and autonomous.
19. What is a factor facilitating learning?
1 Mark Answer: Motivation or readiness is a factor facilitating learning.
20. Define learning disability.
1 Mark Answer: Learning disability is a specific deficit in learning despite normal intelligence, like dyslexia.
21. What is extinction?
1 Mark Answer: Extinction is the weakening of a conditioned response when the US or reinforcer is withheld.
22. What is generalisation?
1 Mark Answer: Generalisation is responding to similar stimuli as the original CS.
23. What is discrimination?
1 Mark Answer: Discrimination is differentiating between stimuli and responding only to the specific CS.
24. What is spontaneous recovery?
1 Mark Answer: Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinct response after a rest period.
25. What is learned helplessness?
1 Mark Answer: Learned helplessness is failing to respond when control is possible due to prior uncontrollable negative events.
Part B: 4 Marks Questions
1. Describe the nature of learning.
4 Marks Answer: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential from experience. Features: Involves experience sequence; permanent distinguish fatigue/habituation/drugs; inferred from performance. Examples: Bell dinner; match burn careful. Process psychological events pre-test/process/acquire/recall.
2. Explain classical conditioning with Pavlov's experiment.
4 Marks Answer: Classical conditioning association CS-US elicit CR. Pavlov dogs: US food UR salivate; CS bell paired; CR salivate bell. S-S learning signal. Examples: Sweet saliva; balloon fear. Activity pickle salivate.
3. What are determinants of classical conditioning?
4 Marks Answer: Determinants: Time simultaneous/delayed/trace/backward (delayed effective); type US appetitive/aversive (aversive faster); intensity CS (more intense fewer trials). Appetitive slow greater trials; aversive 1-3 trials intensity.
4. Describe operant conditioning with Skinner's experiment.
4 Marks Answer: Operant conditioning voluntary behaviour consequence reinforcer. Skinner box rat lever press food. Response instrumental. Examples: Sweets locate; polite favours. S-R learning operate environment.
5. Differentiate positive and negative reinforcement.
4 Marks Answer: Positive adds pleasant increase response (food/praise); negative removes unpleasant increase (escape pain/avoid fine). Both strengthen; negative not punishment. Examples: Woollens avoid cold; seat belts avoid injury/fine.
6. Explain schedules of reinforcement.
4 Marks Answer: Schedules arrangement delivery: Continuous every response fast acquire quick extinguish; partial intermittent greater resistance. Influences course; partial sometimes reinforce. Examples: Vending continuous; gambling partial.
7. What are key differences between classical and operant conditioning?
4 Marks Answer: Classical reflexes US control experimenter passive; operant voluntary reinforcer control organism active. CS defined classical not operant. US elicits/reinforces classical; reinforcer operant. Box 5.1.
8. Explain observational learning.
4 Marks Answer: Observational imitate model no direct. Bandura: Attention model; retention remember; reproduction perform; motivation reinforce. Examples: Children aggression TV; skills demo. Vicarious social.
9. Describe cognitive learning.
4 Marks Answer: Cognitive mental insight sudden/latent prior no trial. Tolman rats maze maps no reinforcer later show. Kohler chimp banana reorganise. Not behaviourist; Gestalt influence.
10. Explain verbal learning methods.
4 Marks Answer: Verbal words associate: Serial anticipate; free recall any order; paired response cue. Determinants meaningfulness/association/organisation. Examples: Nonsense syllables; chunking.
11. Describe stages of skill learning.
4 Marks Answer: Skill practice: Cognitive understand; associative practice feedback; autonomous automatic. Trial error; plateau overcome vary. Examples: Driving/type; motor/perceptual/social.
12. What factors facilitate learning?
4 Marks Answer: Factors: Motivation goal; readiness maturity; reinforcement positive; practice spaced; feedback correct; group interaction; individual intelligence/personality. Speed/extent determine.
13. Explain learning disabilities with examples.
4 Marks Answer: Learning disabilities specific deficits despite normal intelligence/no sensory. Dyslexia read; dysgraphia write; dyscalculia math. Causes neurological/genetic; interventions special education/support.
14. What is extinction and spontaneous recovery?
4 Marks Answer: Extinction weaken no US/reinforcer gradual. Spontaneous recovery reappear rest weaker. Not permanent unlearn; indicates inhibit not erase.
15. Explain generalisation and discrimination.
4 Marks Answer: Generalisation similar stimuli respond (tones bell); discrimination differentiate only specific (only bell). Adaptive; training refine.
16. What is learned helplessness?
4 Marks Answer: Learned helplessness no respond control possible prior uncontrollable negative. Seligman dogs shock escape not try. Relevance depression/motivation loss.
17. Differentiate continuous and partial reinforcement.
4 Marks Answer: Continuous every fast acquire/extinguish; partial intermittent resist extinction. Partial real-life like praise not always.
18. Explain delayed reinforcement effect.
4 Marks Answer: Delayed delivery reinforcer poorer performance. Immediate effective. Examples: Reward chore small now vs big later prefer now.
19. Describe appetitive and aversive conditioning.
4 Marks Answer: Appetitive pleasant approach (eat/drink); aversive painful avoid/escape (shock). Appetitive slower greater trials; aversive fast 1-3 intensity.
20. Explain time relations in classical conditioning.
4 Marks Answer: Simultaneous CS-US together; delayed CS precede end before US; trace CS end before US gap; backward US precede CS. Delayed effective; backward rare.
21. What is habituation?
4 Marks Answer: Habituation decrease response repeated stimuli. Not learning; temporary. Examples: Noise distract initial weaken.
22. Explain punishment effects.
4 Marks Answer: Punishment suppress not eliminate; mild/delayed no effect; strong lasting but not permanent. Hatred punisher; no effect intensity sometimes.
23. Describe latent learning.
4 Marks Answer: Latent learn no immediate reinforcer; later show need. Tolman rats explore maze no food; later food faster. Cognitive maps.
24. Explain insight learning.
4 Marks Answer: Insight sudden reorganise problem solution no trial. Kohler chimp stack boxes/swing stick banana. Gestalt whole.
25. What is verbal learning organisation?
4 Marks Answer: Organisation group meaningful categories aid recall. Chunking reduce items. Examples: Lists cluster related.
Part C: 8 Marks Questions
1. Explain the nature of learning and its features.
8 Marks Answer: Learning permanent change behaviour experience. Features: Experience sequence (bell dinner repeated); permanent distinguish temporary (fatigue no read); inferred performance (recite poem learned). Changes drugs/habituation not. Examples: Single burn careful; repeated habit. Psychological events pre-test/process/acquire/recall compare. S-S events associate.
2. Describe classical conditioning and its determinants.
8 Marks Answer: Classical Pavlov: US food UR salivate; CS bell pair CR salivate. S-S signal. Examples: Sweet saliva; balloon fear. Determinants: Time delayed effective; type US aversive fast; intensity CS more fewer trials. Appetitive slow; aversive 1-3. Forward procedures; backward rare. Activity pickle.
3. Explain operant conditioning and its determinants.
8 Marks Answer: Operant Skinner voluntary reinforcer. Box lever food. Instrumental consequence. Examples: Sweets locate; gadgets operate. Determinants: Reinforcer positive/negative; number/amount/quality increase course; schedules partial resist; delayed poorer. Negative avoid/escape not punishment suppress.
4. Differentiate classical and operant conditioning.
8 Marks Answer: Classical reflexes US control experimenter passive CS defined; operant voluntary reinforcer organism active CS not. US elicit/reinforce classical; reinforcer operant. Examples: Salivate bell classical; lever food operant. S-S signal vs S-R consequence. Box 5.1 details.
5. Explain key learning processes.
8 Marks Answer: Acquisition initial strengthen trials; extinction weaken no US/reinforcer; generalisation similar respond; discrimination specific; spontaneous recovery reappear rest; reinforcement maintain. Occur both conditioning. Examples: No food extinguish salivate; similar tone generalise. Learned helplessness uncontrollable no try.
6. Describe observational and cognitive learning.
8 Marks Answer: Observational Bandura imitate model attention/retention/reproduce/motivate. Examples: Aggression TV. Cognitive insight sudden reorganise/latent no trial show later. Tolman maps; Kohler chimp. Mental not behaviourist. Examples: Banana reach insight.
7. Explain verbal and skill learning.
8 Marks Answer: Verbal words associate methods serial/free/paired; determinants meaningful/organisation. Examples: Lists chunk. Skill practice stages cognitive understand/associative feedback/autonomous automatic. Trial error; plateau vary. Examples: Driving autonomous.
8. Discuss factors facilitating learning and disabilities.
8 Marks Answer: Factors: Motivation/readiness/reinforcement/practice/feedback/group/individual differences intelligence/personality. Disabilities specific despite normal: Dyslexia read reverse; dysgraphia write; dyscalculia math. Causes neurological; interventions special/support inclusive. Not retardation; early identify.
9. Explain reinforcement types and schedules.
8 Marks Answer: Types: Positive pleasant add (praise); negative unpleasant remove (escape). Both increase; punishment suppress. Schedules: Continuous every fast/extinguish; partial intermittent resist (fixed/variable ratio/interval). Examples: Salary fixed; commission variable. Partial real-life.
10. Discuss learned helplessness with example.
8 Marks Answer: Learned helplessness Seligman: Prior uncontrollable negative no respond control possible. Examples: Dogs shock escape not try even open. Relevance depression/victim blame. Overcome controllable positive experiences.
11. Explain time relations and types US in classical.
8 Marks Answer: Time: Simultaneous together; delayed CS precede end US; trace CS end gap US; backward US precede. Delayed effective greater trials simultaneous/trace. Types US: Appetitive pleasant slow; aversive painful fast intensity.
12. Describe punishment effects and limitations.
8 Marks Answer: Punishment suppress not eliminate; mild/delayed no; strong lasting not permanent. Hatred punisher; no effect sometimes. Alternatives positive reinforcement better. Examples: Fine speed suppress temporary.
13. Explain latent and insight cognitive learning.
8 Marks Answer: Latent Tolman learn no reinforcer show later need (rats maze maps). Insight Kohler sudden reorganise solution no trial (chimp boxes banana). Mental processes key; Gestalt whole.
14. Discuss verbal learning determinants.
8 Marks Answer: Determinants: Meaningfulness familiar fast; association value high; organisation chunk/category; presentation paced. Examples: Concrete nouns easy; nonsense low.
15. Explain skill learning stages with example.
8 Marks Answer: Cognitive understand rules; associative practice coordinate feedback; autonomous automatic little attention. Example: Driving cognitive gears; associative smooth; autonomous effortless. Plateau vary practice.
16. Discuss factors facilitating learning.
8 Marks Answer: Motivation intrinsic/extrinsic; readiness physical/mental; reinforcement immediate; practice distributed; feedback specific; group cooperative; individual differences adapt. Environment distraction free; whole/part method complex.
17. Explain types learning disabilities.
8 Marks Answer: Dyslexia read comprehend; dysgraphia write spell; dyscalculia math calculate. Despite normal IQ/no sensory; neurological/genetic. Interventions multisensory/teach strategies/support emotional.
18. Discuss habituation and its distinction from learning.
8 Marks Answer: Habituation decrease repeated stimuli; temporary not permanent. Examples: Noise ignore recover. Not learning; no experience change behaviour potential.
19. Explain appetitive and aversive examples.
8 Marks Answer: Appetitive pleasant approach eat/drink slow trials; aversive painful avoid fast 1-3. Examples: Food salivate appetitive; shock escape aversive.
20. Discuss delayed vs immediate reinforcement.
8 Marks Answer: Delayed poorer level; immediate effective. Examples: Reward now prefer small vs big later. Dramatically alters.
21. Explain generalisation discrimination examples.
8 Marks Answer: Generalisation similar (dog fear all animals); discrimination specific (only that dog). Adaptive survival; training refine.
22. Discuss spontaneous recovery significance.
8 Marks Answer: Reappear extinct after rest weaker. Signifies inhibit not erase; may need repeated extinction. Examples: Phobia return.
23. Explain observational processes Bandura.
8 Marks Answer: Attention notice model; retention remember; reproduction perform; motivation reinforce. Vicarious no trial/error. Examples: Bobo doll aggression.
24. Discuss cognitive learning types.
8 Marks Answer: Insight sudden (Kohler); latent hidden (Tolman maps). Mental reorganise/map; not reinforce immediate.
25. Explain verbal methods examples.
8 Marks Answer: Serial anticipate order; free any; paired cue-response. Examples: Poem recite serial; words list free.
Tip: Conditioning experiments; processes sequence; examples daily. Relate paradigms determinants.
