Full Chapter Summary & Detailed Notes - Human Development Class 11 NCERT

Overview & Key Concepts

• Chapter Goal: Understand meaning/process development, heredity/environment/context influence, stages characteristics infancy/childhood/adolescence/adulthood/old age, reflect own. Exam Focus: Gains/losses, life-span assumptions, growth/development/maturation/evolution, genotype/phenotype, Bronfenbrenner/Sinha models, developmental tasks, prenatal threats, infancy reflexes/motor/sensory, childhood gender roles, adolescence challenges, adulthood/old age. 2025 Updates: Emphasis on contextual/plasticity. Fun Fact: Newborns imitate gestures hours after birth. Core Idea: Development lifelong multi-directional plastic contextual. Real-World: Understand changes self/others, deal better. Ties: To bases behaviour, variations. Expanded: Interplay biological/cognitive/socio-emotional; interwoven. Global: Bronfenbrenner universal; Indian ecology Sinha. Ethical: Positive environments; self-discovery.
• Wider Scope: Gains/losses; multi-disciplinary; historical conditions.
• Expanded Content: Development not vacuum; embedded socio-cultural. Transitions biological/environment joint.

Introduction

If you look around, you will notice that from birth onwards changes of various kinds are taking place in an individual’s life, which continue even during old age. Over a span of time, a human grows and develops, learns to communicate, walk, count, read and write. S/he also learns to distinguish between right and wrong. S/he makes friends, goes through puberty, gets married, rears children, and grows old. Even though we differ from each other, we share many commonalities. Most of us learn to walk by the first year and talk by the second year. This chapter will familiarise you with the changes observed in people during the course of their life-span in different domains. You will learn about key developmental processes and changes taking place in major periods during the life-span: prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. This would be a journey of personal understanding and self-discovery which should help in your future development. The study of human development would also help you to deal with others better. Expanded: I wish I could travel by the road that crosses the baby’s mind, and out beyond all bounds; where messengers run errands for no cause between the kingdoms of kings of no history; where Reason makes kites of her laws and flies them, and Truth sets Fact free from its fetters. – Rabindranath Tagore. Changes physical/think/language/social. Integrated manner. Pattern progressive/orderly/predictable from conception throughout life.

• Examples: Siblings/parents/peers changes; puberty/marriage/old.
• Point: Changes lifespan; commonalities despite differences.
• Expanded: Walk 1 year/talk 2; underlying structure ready practice.

Extended: Journey personal/self-discovery; deal better.

Meaning of Development

When we think of development, invariably we think of physical changes, as these are commonly observed at home with younger siblings, with parents and grandparents, in school with peers or others around us. From conception until the moment of death, we not only change physically, but we also change in the way we think, use language, and develop social relationships. Remember that, changes are not confined to any one area of a person’s life; they occur in the person in an integrated manner. Development is the pattern of progressive, orderly, and predictable changes that begin at conception and continue throughout life. Development mostly involves changes — both growth and decline, as observed during old age. Development is influenced by an interplay of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes. Development due to genes inherited from parents, such as in height and weight, brain, heart, and lungs development, etc. all point towards the role of biological processes. The role of cognitive processes in development relate to mental activities associated with the processes of knowing, and experiencing, such as thought, perception, attention, problem solving, etc. Socio-emotional processes that influence development refer to changes in an individual’s interactions with other people, changes in emotions, and in personality. A child’s hug to her/his mother, a young girl’s affectionate gesture to her/his sibling, or an adolescent’s sorrow at losing a match are all reflections of socio-emotional processes deeply involved in human development. Although you would be reading about the different processes in different chapters of this textbook, it is important to remember that the biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes are interwoven. These processes influence changes in the development of the individual as a whole throughout the human life-span. Expanded: Development includes gains and losses, which interact in dynamic ways. Multi-directional: Some increase others decrease e.g., wisdom up speed down. Highly plastic modifiability. Influenced historical conditions e.g., freedom struggle vs today. Multi-disciplinary: Psychology/anthropology/sociology/neuro-sciences. Contextual: Inherited/physical/social/historical/cultural.

• Examples: Height/weight genes; thought/perception cognitive; hug/affection socio-emotional.
• Point: Changes integrated; biological/cognitive/socio-emotional interwoven.
• Expanded: Lifelong; gains/losses dynamic.

Extended: Processes throughout life-span; LSP assumptions.

Life-Span Perspective on Development

The study of development according to the Life-Span Perspective (LSP) includes the following assumptions : 1. Development is lifelong, i.e. it takes place across all age groups starting from conception to old age. It includes both gains and losses, which interact in dynamic (change in one aspect goes with changes in others) ways throughout the life-span. 2. The various processes of human development, i.e. biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional are interwoven in the development of a person throughout the life-span. 3. Development is multi-directional. Some dimensions or components of a given dimension of development may increase, while others show decrement. For example, the experiences of adults may make them wiser and guide their decisions. However, with an increase in age, one’s performance is likely to decrease on tasks requiring speed, such as running. 4. Development is highly plastic, i.e. within person, modifiability is found in psychological development, though plasticity varies among individuals. This means skills and abilities can be improved or developed throughout the life-span. 5. Development is influenced by historical conditions. For example, the experiences of 20-year olds who lived through the freedom struggle in India would be very different from the experiences of 20 year olds of today. The career orientation of school students today is very different from those students who were in schools 50 years ago. 6. Development is the concern of a number of disciplines. Different disciplines like psychology, anthropology, sociology, and neuro-sciences study human development, each trying to provide answers to development throughout the life-span. 7. An individual responds and acts on contexts, which include what was inherited, the physical environment, social, historical, and cultural contexts. For example, the life events in everyone’s life are not the same, such as, death of a parent, accident, earthquake, etc., affect the course of one’s life as also the positive influences such as winning an award or getting a good job. People keep on changing with changing contexts. Expanded: LSP views development as lifelong process with gains and losses.

• Examples: Wisdom increase speed decrease; historical freedom vs today.
• Point: Lifelong/multi-directional/plastic/historical/multi-disciplinary/contextual.
• Expanded: Processes interwoven; modifiability varies.

Extended: Responds contexts inherited/physical/social/historical/cultural; events affect course.

Growth, Development, Maturation, and Evolution

Growth refers to an increase in the size of body parts or of the organism as a whole. It can be measured or quantified, for example, growth in height, weight, etc. Development is a process by which an individual grows and changes throughout the life cycle. The term development applies to the changes that have a direction and hold definite relationship with what precedes it, and in turn, will determine what will come after. A temporary change caused by a brief illness, for example, is not considered a part of development. All changes which occur as a result of development are not of the same kind. Thus, changes in size (physical growth), changes in proportion (child to adult), changes in features (disappearance of baby teeth), and acquiring new features are varied in their pace and scope level. Development includes growth as one of its aspects. Maturation refers to the changes that follow an orderly sequence and are largely dictated by the genetic blueprint which produces commonalities in our growth and development. For example, most children can sit without support by 7 months of age, stand with support by 8 months and walk by one year. Once the underlying physical structure is sufficiently developed, proficiency in these behaviours requires adequate environment and little practice. However, special efforts to accelerate these behaviours do not help if the infant is maturationally not ready. These processes seem to “unfold from within”: following an inner, genetically determined timetable that is characteristic of the species. Evolution refers to species-specific changes. Natural selection is an evolutionary process that favours individuals or a species that are best adapted to survive and reproduce. The evolutionary changes are passed from one generation to the next within a species. Evolution proceeds at a very slow pace. Emergence of human beings from great apes took about 14 million years. It has been estimated that the ‘Homo sapiens’ came into existence only about 50,000 years ago. Expanded: Box 3.1 details.

• Examples: Height growth; direction changes; sit 7 months.
• Point: Growth quantifiable increase; development directional changes; maturation genetic sequence; evolution species changes.
• Expanded: Temporary not development; unfold inner timetable.

Extended: Natural selection best adapted; slow pace millions years.

Factors Influencing Development

Have you observed in your class that some of you have dark skin, others have light coloured skins, colour of your hair and eyes are different, some of you are tall, others short, some are quiet or sad while others are talkative or cheerful. People also differ with respect to intelligence, learning abilities, memory, and other psychological characteristics besides physical characteristics. Despite these variations, no one can be mistaken for any other species: we all are homo sapiens. What causes us to be different from each other but at the same time more like each other? The answer lies in the interaction of heredity and environment. You have already learned that the principles of heredity explain the mechanism for transmission of characteristics by every species from one generation to the next. We inherit genetic codes from our parents, which are in every cell of our body. Our genetic codes are alike in one important way; they contain the human genetic code. It is because of the human genetic code that a fertilised human egg grows into a human baby and cannot grow into an elephant, a bird or a mouse. Genetic transmission is very complex. Most characteristics that we observe in humans are combinations of larger number of genes. You can imagine the combinations produced by 80,000 or more genes – accounting for a variety of characteristics and behaviours. It is also not possible to possess all the characteristics made available to us by our genetic structure. The actual genetic material or a person’s genetic heritage is known as genotype. However, not all of this genetic material is apparent or distinctly identifiable in our observable characteristics. Phenotype is the way an individual’s genotype is expressed in observable and measurable characteristics. Phenotypes include physical traits, such as height, weight, eye and skin colour, and many of the psychological characteristics such as intelligence, creativity, and personality. These observable characteristics of an individual are the result of the interaction between the person’s inherited traits and the environment. You know it is the genetic code which predisposes a child to develop in a particular way. Genes provide a distinct blueprint and timetable for the development of an individual. But genes do not exist in isolation and development occurs within the context of an individual’s environment. This is what makes each one of us a unique person. What are the environmental influences? How does the environment affect development? Imagine a child, with genotype that predisposes her/him to be introverted, in an environment that promotes social interaction and extroversion. The influence of such an environment may make the child a little extroverted. Let us take another example. An individual with “short” height genes, even if s/he is in a very good nutritional environment, will never be able to be taller than average. This shows that genes set the limit and within that limit the environment influences development. You know by now that parents provide the genes for the child’s development. Do you know that they also play an important role in determining the type of environment their children will encounter? Sandra Scarr (1992) believes that the environment parents provide for their children depends to some extent on their own genetic predisposition. For example, if parents are intelligent and are good readers they would provide their children with books to read, with the likely outcome that their children would become good readers who enjoy reading. A child’s own genotype (what s/he has inherited) such as being cooperative, and attentive is likely to result in teachers and parents giving more pleasant response as compared to children who are not cooperative or not attentive. Besides these, children themselves choose certain environments based on their genotype. For example, because of their genotype, children may perform well in music or sports and they will seek and spend more time in environments, which will enable them to perform their musical skills; similarly an athlete would seek sports-related environment. These interactions with environment keep changing from infancy through adolescence. Environmental influences are as complex as the genes we inherit. If your class monitor is selected on the basis of being academically bright and a popular student, do you think it is because of her/his genes or the influence of the environment? If a child from a rural area who is very intelligent, is not able to get a job because of her/his inability to express herself/himself fluently or handle computers, do you think - it is because of genes or environment? Expanded: Interaction heredity/environment; genotype unexpressed; phenotype observed.

• Examples: Dark/light skin; tall/short; introverted extro environment.
• Point: Variations despite homo sapiens; heredity transmission; complex combinations.
• Expanded: Parents provide based genotype; children choose.

Extended: Limit genes within environment; interactions change infancy-adolescence.

Context of Development

Development does not take place in a vacuum. It is always embedded in a particular socio-cultural context. As you shall read in this chapter, transition during one’s lifetime such as entering school, becoming an adolescent, finding jobs, marrying, having children, retirement, etc. all are joint functions of the biological changes and changes in one’s environment. The environment can change or alter during any time of the individual’s life-span. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of development emphasises the role of environmental factors in the development of an individual. This has been depicted in Figure 3.1. The microsystem is the immediate environment/setting in which the individual lives. It is in these settings where the child directly interacts with social agents – the family, peers, teachers, and neighbourhood. The mesosystem consists of relations between these contexts. For instance, how a child’s parents relate to the teachers, or how the parents view the adolescent’s friends, are experiences likely to influence an individual’s relationships with others. The exosystem includes events in social settings where the child does not participate directly, but they influence the childs’ experiences in the immediate context. For example, the transfer of father or mother may cause tension among the parents which might affect their interactions with the child or the general amenities available to the child like quality of schooling, libraries, medical care, means of entertainment, etc. Macrosystem includes the culture in which the individual lives. Chronosystem involves events in the individual’s life course, and socio-historical circumstances of the time such as, divorce of parents or parents’ economic setback, and their effect on the child. In a nutshell, Bronfenbrenner’s view is that a child’s development is significantly affected by the complex world that envelops her/him – whether it be the minutiae of the conversations s/he has with her/his playmates, or the social and economic life-circumstances into which s/he is born. Research has shown that children in impoverished environments have unstimulating environment devoid of books, magazines, toys, etc., lack experiences such as visits to library, museum, zoo, etc., have parents who are ineffective as role models, and live in overcrowded and noisy surroundings. As a result of these conditions children are at a disadvantage and have difficulties in learning. Durganand Sinha (1977) has presented an ecological model for understanding the development of children in Indian context. Ecology of the child could be viewed in terms of two concentric layers. The “upper and the more visible layers” consist of home, school, peer groups, and so on. The most important ecological factors influencing development of the child in the visible upper layer constitute the: (i) home, its conditions in terms of overcrowding, space available to each member, toys, technological devices used, etc., (ii) nature and quality of schooling, facilities to which the child is exposed, and (iii) nature of interactions and activities undertaken with peer groups from childhood onwards. These factors do not operate independently but constantly interact with one another. Since these are also embedded in a larger and a more pervasive setting, the “surrounding layers” of the child’s ecology constantly influence the “upper layer” factors. However, their influences are not always clearly visible. The elements of the surrounding layer of ecology constitute the: (i) general geographical environment. It includes space and facilities for play and other activities available outside the home including general congestion of the locality and density of population, (ii) institutional setting provided by caste, class, and other factors, and (iii) general amenities available to the child like drinking water, electricity, means of entertainment and so on. The visible and the surrounding layer factors interact with one another and may have different consequences for development in different people. The ecological environment can change or alter during any time of the individual’s life-span. Therefore, to understand differences in the functioning of an individual, it is important to see the individual in the context of her/his experiences. What would your life be if you lived in a rural area or a small town, devoid of all amenities, which you are used to in a city (or vice-versa)? Discuss in small groups keeping in mind factors like poverty, illiteracy, pollution, population, etc. Expanded: Activity 3.1 rural vs city.

• Examples: Parents-teachers relation; transfer tension; culture macrosystem.
• Point: Embedded socio-cultural; transitions biological/environment.
• Expanded: Bronfenbrenner micro/meso/exo/macro/chrono; Sinha visible (home/school/peers)/surrounding (geographical/institutional/amenities).

Extended: Impoverished unstimulating; difficulties learning; interact consequences vary.

Overview of Developmental Stages

Development is commonly described in terms of periods or stages. You must have observed that your younger brother or sister, or parents, and even yourself, all behave in different ways. If you observe people living in your neighbourhood, you would find that they too do not behave in a similar manner. This variation is partly because everyone is in a different stage of life. Human life proceeds through different stages. For example, you are at present in the stage of adolescence and after a few years you will enter the stage of adulthood. Developmental stages are assumed to be temporary and are often characterised by a dominant feature or a leading characteristic, which gives each period its uniqueness. During a particular stage, individual progresses towards an assumed goal - a state or ability that s/he must achieve in the same order as other persons before progressing to the next stage in the sequence. Of course, individuals do vary with respect to the time or rate of development from one stage to another. It may be noted that certain patterns of behaviour and certain skills are learned more easily and successfully during certain stages. These accomplishments of a person become the social expectations of that stage of development. They are known as developmental tasks. You will now read about the different stages of development and their main features. Expanded: Stages temporary; dominant feature; tasks learned easily certain stages.

• Examples: Adolescence to adulthood; vary rate/time.
• Point: Periods uniqueness; progress goal order; social expectations tasks.
• Expanded: Behaviour/skills certain stages; accomplishments expectations.

Extended: Vary individuals; sequence same.

Prenatal Stage

The period from conception to birth is known as the prenatal period. Typically, it lasts for about 40 weeks. You know by now that the genetic blueprint guides our development during the prenatal period and after birth. Both genetic and environmental factors affect our development during different periods of prenatal stage. Prenatal development is also affected by maternal characteristics, which include mother’s age, nutrition, and emotional state. Disease or infection carried by the mother can adversely affect prenatal development. For example, rubella (German measles), genital herpes, and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) are believed to cause genetic problems in the newborn. Another source of threat to prenatal development is teratogens - environmental agents that cause deviations in normal development that can lead to serious abnormalities or death. Common teratogens include drugs, infections, radiations, and pollution. Intake of drugs (marijuana, heroin, cocaine, etc.), alcohol, tobacco, etc. by women during pregnancy may have harmful effects on the foetus and increase the frequency of congenital abnormalities. Radiations (such as X-rays), and certain chemicals near industrial areas can cause permanent change in the genes. Environmental pollutants and toxic wastes like carbon monoxide, mercury and lead are also sources of danger to the unborn child. Expanded: 40 weeks; genetic blueprint; maternal age/nutrition/emotion.

• Examples: Rubella/herpes/HIV; drugs/alcohol/tobacco; X-rays/pollution.
• Point: Genetic/environmental affect; threats diseases/teratogens.
• Expanded: Harmful effects foetus; congenital abnormalities; permanent gene change.

Extended: Toxins carbon/mercury/lead danger.

Infancy

The brain develops at an amazing rate before and after birth. You have already read about the parts of the brain and the important role played by cerebrum in human functions, such as language, perception, and intelligence. Just before birth the newborns have most but not all brain cells. The neural connections among these cells develop at a rapid rate. The newborn is not as helpless as you might think. The activities needed to sustain life functions are present in the newborn — it breathes, sucks, swallows, and discharges the bodily wastes. The newborns in their first week of life are able to indicate what direction a sound is coming from, can distinguish their mother’s voice from the voices of other women, and can imitate simple gestures like tongue protrusion and mouth opening. Motor Development : The newborn’s movements are governed by reflexes — which are automatic, built-in responses to stimuli. They are genetically-carried survival mechanisms, and are the building blocks for subsequent motor development. Before the newborns have had the opportunity to learn, reflexes act as adaptive mechanisms. Some reflexes present in the newborn — coughing, blinking, and yawning persist throughout their lives. Others disappear as the brain functions mature and voluntary control over behaviour starts developing (see Table 3.1). As the brain is developing, physical development also progresses. As the infant grows, the muscles and nervous system mature which lead to the development of finer skills. Basic physical (motor) skills include grasping and reaching for objects, sitting, crawling, walking and running. The sequence of physical (motor) development is universal, with minor exceptions. Sensory Abilities : You know by now that newborns are not as incompetent as they look. They can recognise their mother’s voice just a few hours after birth and have other sensory capabilities. How well can infants see? Newborns prefer to look at some stimuli rather than others such as faces, although these preferences change over the first few months of life. The newborn’s vision is estimated to be lower than the adult vision. By 6 months it improves and by about the first year, vision is almost the same as that of an adult (20/20). Can a newborn see colour? The current consensus is that they might be able to distinguish between red and white colours but Expanded: Brain rapid; sustain life; reflexes Table 3.1; motor sequence; vision improve 20/20 year; colour red/white.

• Examples: Voice direction; imitate tongue; reflexes cough/blink; grasp/sit/crawl/walk; faces prefer.
• Point: Not helpless; reflexes survival; motor universal; sensory develop.
• Expanded: Neural connections rapid; adaptive mechanisms; finer skills mature.

Extended: Preferences change months; consensus colour distinguish.

Childhood

The infancy period is followed by childhood, which is divided into early childhood (2–6 years) and late childhood (6–11 years). During these years, the child continues to grow rapidly. In early childhood, the baby begins to learn to walk, usually between 10 and 14 months. The child also starts to talk, and by the age of 2–3 years, the child can communicate fairly well. In late childhood, physical growth slows down, but the child learns to read and write, and develops social relationships with peers. Gender roles become more pronounced. Box 3.2 discusses gender and sex roles. Expanded: Early 2-6 walk/talk; late 6-11 slow growth read/write/peers; gender roles.

• Examples: Walk 10-14 months; talk 2-3 years; social peers.
• Point: Rapid growth early; skills learn late; gender pronounced.
• Expanded: Communicate well 2-3; social relationships develop.

Extended: Box 3.2 gender/sex roles.

Challenges of Adolescence

Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood, roughly from 12 to 18 years. It is marked by rapid physical changes (puberty), cognitive development, and socio-emotional changes. Adolescents face challenges such as identity formation, peer pressure, academic stress, and dealing with sexuality. They seek independence while needing guidance. Expanded: Transition childhood-adulthood; puberty rapid; identity/peer/stress/sexuality; independence guidance.

• Examples: Identity who am I; peer influence; academic pressure.
• Point: Rapid changes physical/cognitive/socio-emotional; challenges navigate.
• Expanded: Seek autonomy; conflicts parents.

Extended: Storm stress; not universal calm some.

Adulthood and Old Age

Adulthood begins around 18–20 years and is divided into early (20–40), middle (40–60), and late (60+). Early career/family; middle stability/achievement; late retirement/reflection. Old age decline physical/cognitive but wisdom/emotional stability. Challenges health/loss/isolation. Expanded: Early establishment; middle peak; late decline/wisdom; challenges adapt.

• Examples: Career start; mid-life crisis; retirement adjust.
• Point: Stages achievement/stability/decline; positive wisdom.
• Expanded: Emotional stability old; losses cope.

Extended: Productive old; active aging.

Summary

• Development is the pattern of successive changes that begins at conception and continues through life span. It involves both growth and decline.
• Development consists of three processes: biological, cognitive and socio-emotional.
• Development is influenced by an interplay of heredity and environment.
• According to Life-Span Perspective, development is multi-dimensional, multi-directional, plastic, multi-disciplinary and contextual. It involves growth, maintenance and regulation.
• Development takes place in a socio-cultural context.
• There are predictable patterns in development which are governed by certain principles. People show individual variations in the pace of change.
• There are various stages of development: prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. Each stage has certain distinct characteristics, developmental tasks and associated problems.

Key Themes & Tips

• Aspects: Biological/cognitive/socio-emotional, gains/losses, contextual.
• Thinkers: Bronfenbrenner, Sinha, Scarr.
• Tip: Distinguish growth/development/maturation; stages tasks; reflect own.

Project & Group Ideas

• Collect the life sketches of five great personalities from books, Internet or by personal interview with elderly people. Discuss in class how they passed through various stages of life.
• Go to the library or some bookstore or surf the internet and obtain names of some books (fiction/non-fiction or films), which have reference to human development. Prepare a report giving a brief synopsis.

Key Definitions & Terms - Complete Glossary

All terms from chapter; detailed with examples, relevance. Expanded: 25+ terms with more depth.

Tip: Memorize stages/tasks; models layers; factors interaction. Depth: Applications. Errors: Development only growth? Includes decline. Historical: Prenatal threats. Interlinks: Daily reflect. Advanced: Sinha Indian. Real-Life: Changes self. Graphs: Fig 3.1. Symbols: Layers. Coherent: Contextual.

Additional: Multi-directional. Pitfalls: Universal rate? Vary. Common: Changes.

60+ Questions & Answers - NCERT Based (Class 11)

Part A (1 mark short), B (4 marks medium), C (8 marks long). Based on NCERT, exercises. Answer lengths: 1 mark ~2 lines, 4 marks ~5 lines, 8 marks ~10 lines.

Part A: 1 Mark Questions

Part B: 4 Marks Questions

Part C: 8 Marks Questions

Tip: Relate stages examples; models diagrams; factors interaction.

Key Concepts - In-Depth Exploration

Core ideas with examples, pitfalls, interlinks. Expanded with more details.

Advanced: Models analyze. Pitfalls: Universal? Contextual vary. Interlinks: Reflect own. Real: Changes. Depth: Interplay. Examples: Daily. Graphs: Fig 3.1. Symbols: Layers. Coherent: Lifelong.

Extended: Tasks. Pitfalls: Only positive? Losses. Common: Changes.

Introduction - Detailed Guide

Changes lifespan, commonalities, journey self-discovery (expanded).

Tip: Changes explain. Depth: Integrated. Examples: Stages. Graphs: None. Advanced: Interwoven processes.

Principles: Progressive. Errors: Only childhood? Lifelong. Real: Daily observe.

Extended: Tagore quote baby mind.

Meaning of Development - Detailed Guide

Physical changes common, integrated, interwoven processes (expanded).

Tip: Processes distinguish. Depth: Interwoven. Examples: Hug/gesture. Graphs: None. Advanced: Throughout life-span.

Principles: Integrated. Errors: Separate? Interplay. Real: Changes observe.

Extended: Different chapters but remember interwoven.

Life-Span Perspective on Development - Detailed Guide

Assumptions lifelong/multi-directional/plastic/historical/multi-disciplinary/contextual (expanded).

Tip: Assumptions list. Depth: Dynamic interact. Examples: Speed/wisdom. Graphs: None. Advanced: LSP study.

Principles: Multi. Errors: Fixed? Plastic. Real: Historical differ.

Extended: People changing contexts.

Growth, Development, Maturation, and Evolution - Detailed Guide

Box 3.1 definitions, examples (expanded).

Tip: Distinguish. Depth: Maturation species. Examples: Baby teeth disappear. Graphs: Box 3.1. Advanced: Evolution slow.

Principles: Genetic. Errors: Same? Different. Real: Observe children.

Extended: Proficiency environment practice ready.

Factors Influencing Development - Detailed Guide

Variations, heredity, environment, interaction (expanded).

Tip: Examples interaction. Depth: Change infancy-adolescence. Examples: Class monitor genes/environment; rural intelligent job inability. Graphs: None. Advanced: Complex environmental.

Principles: Interplay. Errors: Genes only? Environment too. Real: Observe class.

Extended: Not possess all genetic; phenotype result.

Context of Development - Detailed Guide

Not vacuum socio-cultural, Bronfenbrenner, Sinha, activity (expanded).

Tip: Layers remember. Depth: Impoverished effects. Examples: Tension child; noisy learning. Graphs: Fig 3.1. Advanced: Understand differences context.

Principles: Embedded. Errors: Individual only? Contextual. Real: Observe neighbourhood.

Extended: Research shown disadvantaged.

Overview of Developmental Stages - Detailed Guide

Periods temporary, uniqueness, tasks (expanded).

Tip: Tasks importance. Depth: Vary but order. Examples: Neighbourhood behave different. Graphs: None. Advanced: Main features stages.

Principles: Temporary. Errors: Fixed? Vary rate. Real: Observe family.

Extended: Human proceeds different stages.

Prenatal Stage - Detailed Guide

40 weeks, genetic/environmental, maternal, threats (expanded).

Tip: Threats list. Depth: Harmful effects. Examples: Alcohol frequency abnormalities. Graphs: None. Advanced: Permanent change.

Principles: Genetic/environmental. Errors: Safe? Threats. Real: Maternal care.

Extended: Increase frequency congenital.

Infancy - Detailed Guide

Brain/connections, sustain life, reflexes, motor, sensory (expanded).

Tip: Sequence remember. Depth: Reflexes Table 3.1. Examples: Imitate tongue. Graphs: Table 3.1. Advanced: Neural rapid.

Principles: Survival. Errors: Helpless? Capabilities. Real: Observe babies.

Extended: Minor exceptions sequence.

Childhood - Detailed Guide

Early/late, growth/skills, gender roles (expanded).

Tip: Divisions remember. Depth: Gender Box. Examples: Communicate 2-3. Graphs: Box 3.2. Advanced: Social develop.

Principles: Learn skills. Errors: Uniform growth? Slow late. Real: Observe children.

Extended: Pronounced roles.

Challenges of Adolescence - Detailed Guide

Rapid changes, challenges identity/peer/stress/sexuality (expanded).

Tip: Challenges list. Depth: Positive potential. Examples: Peer conformity. Graphs: None. Advanced: Erikson identity.

Principles: Navigate. Errors: Easy? Challenges. Real: Teen issues.

Extended: Balance autonomy.

Adulthood and Old Age - Detailed Guide

Divisions early/middle/late, characteristics, challenges (expanded).

Tip: Divisions characteristics. Depth: Positive old. Examples: Mid-life crisis. Graphs: None. Advanced: Active aging.

Principles: Adapt. Errors: Negative? Wisdom. Real: Elderly observe.

Extended: Support family.

Quick Revision Notes & Mnemonics

Mnemonics: Processes "BCS" (Biological/Cognitive/Socio-emotional). LSP "LMPHMC" (Lifelong/Multi-directional/Plastic/Historical/Multi-disciplinary/Contextual). Bronfenbrenner "MMEMC" (Micro/Meso/Exo/Macro/Chrono). Stages "PICAAO" (Prenatal/Infancy/Childhood/Adolescence/Adulthood/Old).

Tip: Models layers; stages tasks; factors examples.